Lib.    AGRIC,  DIPT. 


o  • 


THE 

PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS, 

GIVING  THE  PRINCIPLES  WHICH  GOVERN  THE 

DEVELOPMENT  AND  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS,  THEIR  BOTANICAL 
AFFINITIES  AND  PECULIAR  PROPERTIES  ; 

ALSO, 

Descriptions  of  the  Process  by  which  Varieties  and  Species  are  Crossed 
or  Hybridized,  and  the  many  Different  Methods  by  which  Cul- 
tivated Plants  may  be  Propagated  and  Multiplied. 

BY 
ANDEEW    S.    FULLEE, 

AUTHOR  OF   "  THE  GRAPE   CULTURIST,"    "  THE    SMALL  FRUIT  CULTTJRIST,"   "  PRAC- 
TICAL FORESTRY,"  ETC. 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    NUMEROUS    ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW    YORK: 

0.  JTJDD   CO.,  DAVID  W.  JUDD,  PKES'T, 

751    BROADWAY. 

1887. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by  the 

O.  JUDD   CO., 
Ill  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


TO 

J.   R.   T  R  U  M  P  Y, 

FLUSHING,   N.  T.. 

Whose  great  skill  in  the  Propagation  of  Rare  Trees  and 
Shrubs  has  contributed  so  much  to  the  tasteful  appear- 
ance of  the  Homes  of  our  People, 

THIS  VOLUME   IS  DEDICATED. 

BY  HIS  FRIEND. 

THE   AUTHOR, 


S4892U 


CONTENTS. 


Preface vii. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Propagation  of  Plants 11 

CHAPTER  II. 
Movement  and  Reorganization  of  Cells 20 

CHAPTER  III. 
Origin  and  Kinds  of  Buds 28 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Roots  and  their  Functions 36 

CHAPTER  V. 
Stems  and  their  Appendages 51 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Flowers,  Fruits  and  Seeds. 66 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Circulation  of  Sap - 85 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Sex  and  Fertilization 100 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Influence  of  Pollen 117 

CHAPTER  X. 
General  Principles  andMethods.. 135 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Propagation  by  Cuttings 144 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Propagation  by  Cuttings  of  Immature  Growth 154 


VI  PROPAGATION  OP  PLANTS. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Propagating  by  Layers 170 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Propagation  by  Suckers  and  Divisions 176 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Propagation  by  Koot-Cuttings 180 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Propagation  by  Budding 189 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Propagation  by  Grafting 199 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Selecting  Stocks 232 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Select  List  of  Plants 249 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Herbs,  Tubers  and  Bulbs ..  309 


PEEFACE. 


When  I  was  a  young  man  a  plant  of  that  grand  old 
Rose,  the  Chromatella,  came  into  my  possession.  Desir- 
ing to  piopagate  it,  I  visited  a  Scotch  gardener  in  the 
neighborhood  and  asked  him  to  show  me  how  Eoses  were 
budded,  and  was  informed  that  propagating  Eoses  was  a 
"trade  secret."  This  somewhat  surprised  me,  as  "trade 
secrets  "  in  gardening  was  a  new  idea  to  me,  not  having 
at  that  time  been  introduced  to  the  mystic  shrine  of  the 
craft.  My  reply  to  this  statement  was,  "  Well,  sir,  if  I 
live  to  be  as  old  as  you  are,  I  will  not  only  know  your 
trade  secrets,  but  make  them  known  to  all  who  may  de- 
sire such  information."  The  present  work  is  in  part  a 
fulfillment  of  the  promise  made  so  many  years  ago,  and  it 
has  never  been  lost  sight  of. 

While  admitting  that  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  horticulturists  and  horticultural  literature  has 
somewhat  modified  my  earlier  impressions  as  to  the 
general  secretiveness  of  the  profession,  especially  as  to 
the  more  intelligent  members,  yet  there  are  many  who 
are  still  very  chary  of  giving  information  about  the  best 
modes  of  propagating  the  plants  they  cultivate,  and  in 
visiting  their  establishments  we  may  see  ""No  Admit- 
tance "  over  the  door  of  the  propagating  house,  probably 
placed  there  to  more  fully  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
visitors  the  idea  that  the  proprietor  or  his  gardener  is  an 
important  personage,  and  that  behind  this  sign  are  trade 
secrets  of  vast  importance  and  value.  But  it  will  be 

(VII) 


VIXT.     *•':      *;  PR^AGfAjlO^'OF   PLANTS. 

found  not  only  with  horticulturists,  but  among  all  learned 
men,  that  he  who  knows  most  is  the  most  willing  and 
ready  to  give  information  to  whomsoever  may  ask  it. 

The  fountains  of  true  knowledge  are  inexhaustible, 
and  in  practical  matters  it  is  folly  to  suppose  that  to 
know  just  how  an  operation  should  be  performed  will 
enable  all  to  do  the  work  equally  well.  One  man  may 
know  how  an  implement  should  be  made,  and  yet  not 
possess  the  skill  requisite  to  make  it.  It  is  said  that 
poets  are  born,  not.  made,  but  this  oft-repeated  aphorism 
is  no  more  true  of  poets  than  of  the  mechanic  or  gar- 
dener. Long  experience  may  enable  a  man  to  become  a 
moderately  good  mechanic  or  propagator  of  plants,  bub 
never  a  first-class  workman  in  either  calling  unless  he  pos- 
sesses an  inborn  latent  talent  for  such  work  that  becomes 
developed  through  practical  experience.  For  this  reason 
there  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of  the  upper  rooms  in 
the  temple  of  Hortulanus  ever  becoming  overcrowded  as 
the  result  of  making  known  all  that  is  possible  to  discover 
in  regard  to  the  cultivation  and  propagation  of  plants. 

The  present  volume  is  a  summing  up  of  a  life  of 
observation,  study  and  experiment  among  plants,  in  the 
field,  forest  and  garden,  and  while  in  a  few  instances  I 
may  not  agree  with  some  of  our  botanical  authorities, 
still,  to  be  true  to  myself  and  my  convictions,  I  could  not 
do  otherwise  than  state  what  appeared  to  me  to  be  facts. 
It  has  been  my  aim  in  this,  as  in  my  other  works,  not 
to  mislead,  but  to  prompt  the  inexperienced  to  think  as 
well  as  act — to  investigate,  experiment  and  seek  the  truth 
wherever  it  is  to  be  found,  without  regard  to  what  I  or 
other  authors  have  said.  It  is  a  common  failing  among 
cultivators  of  plants  to  consider  words  equivalent  to 
action,  and  theories  as  facts  derived  from  actual  experi- 
ence. We  are  all  far  too  ready  to  accept  theories  in  regard 
to  the  habits  and  structure  of  plants,  instead  of  appealing 
to  the  plants  themselves  for  the  truth.  It  is  so  much 


PREFACE.  IX 

more  convenient  to  believe  than  to  investigate  and  know 
whether  a  declaration  is  true  or  false,  that  we  have  com- 
paratively few  thorough  and  careful  investigators  of  the 
phenomena  of  plant  life. 

Horticulture  as  a  science  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  and 
while  we  know  something  of  the  botanical  relationships 
of  plants  as  exhibited  in  the  floral  organs  and  various 
other  appendages  and  parts,  there  is  yet  much  to  be 
learned  of  their  chemical  and  mechanical  affinities.  In 
the  hybridizing  and  crossing  of  species  and  varieties, 
and,  perhaps,  the  intermingling  of  genera,  there  is  a  wide 
field  open  for  investigation  and  experiment,  from  which 
very  valuable  and  important  results  may  confidently  be 
expected ;  and  while  I  have  devoted  only  a  limited  space 
to  this  subject,  enough  has  probably  been  said  to  show 
the  way  in  which  operations  should  be  performed. 

The  usual  incentive  to  investigation  is  a  desire  to  know, 
and  a  doubt  often  becomes  a  germ  of  knowledge  and  an 
aid  to  progress.  In  this  way  have  emanated  most  of  the 
greatest  discoveries  of  all  ages.  When  one  has  become 
sufficiently  interested  in  a  subject  to  inquire  and  inves- 
tigate, he  enters  upon  the  true  and  only  road  to  actual 
knowledge. 

In  endeavoring  to  explain  some  of  the  physiological 
laws  and  principles  which  govern  the  growth  of  plants,  I 
have  not  placed  implicit  confidence  in  the  statements  of 
those  who  are  usually  considered  eminent  vegetable 
physiologists,  for  it  appears  to  be  a  common  failing  with 
the  authors  of  such  works  to  state  definitely  that  a  thing 
is  thus  and  so,  with  seldom  or  never  an  if,  but,  or  other 
modifying  word  that  would  indicate  it  was  possible  for 
the  author  to  be  mistaken,  hence  the  gravest  errors — if 
we  call  them  by  no  worse  name — have  been  widely  dis- 
seminated and  credited  as  absolute  facts.  I  have  stated 
only  what  my  own  experience  among  plants  has  led  mo 
to  believe  to  be  facts,  without  presuming  upon  the 


X  PROPAGATION  OP  PLANTS. 

bounds  of  infallibility.  The  modes  of  propagation  may 
not  in  every  instance  be  the  best  known  to  others,  but 
they  are  the  best  known  to  the  writer. 

The  author  asks  no  fellow  laborer  to  place  implicit 
confidence  in  the  explanations  given  of  the  principles 
involved  in  the  growth  or  modes  of  propagation  of  plants, 
but  merely  requests  that  their  value  or  worthlessness  be 
determined  by  actual  personal  experience,  leaving  all 
preconceived  theories  out  of  the  question. 

There  was  a  time  in  the  author's  life  when  such  a  work 
as  this  would  have  been  of  great  assistance,  and  have 
saved  him  the  loss  of  many  valuable  plants;  and  believing 
that  there  are  at  this  day  young  men  just  entering  the 
horticultural  field  who  may  be  benefited  and  derive  some 
little  assistance  from  this  volume,  it  is  sent  forth  with 
the  hope  that  it  will  not  only  be  kindly  received,  but  may 
serve  to  promote  the  propagation  and  cultivation  of 
plants. 

ANDREW  S.  FULLER. 

Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  January,  1887. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


CHAPTEK   I. 
PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

For  all  practical  purposes,  the  single  individual  plant- 
cell  may  be  considered  as  the  unit  of  vegetable  organism. 
These  minute  individual  cells  contain  a  vital  principle 
called  life,  which  may  be  defined  as  a  force,  possessing 
an  aptitude  to  respond  to  a  stimulus. 

It  is  the  same  in  animals  as  in  plants  so  long  as  they 
remain  in  their  embryonic  stages,  but  soon  in  the  former 
energy,  a  condition  of  consciousness  is  delevoped.  The  egg 
of  an  insect,  bird  or  other  oviparous  animal  is  a  complex 
living  organism,  but  it  cannot  in  truth  be  said  to  possess 
consciousness,  or  be  aware  of  its  own  existence;  still,  it 
responds  to  the  stimulus  (heat),  energy  is  developed,  and 
consciousness  follows  in  succeeding  stages.  Seeds  of 
plants  respond  to  the  same  stimulus,  the  young  plantlet 
absorbing  nutriment  from  surrounding  elements;  and 
while  it  may  not  be  conscious  of  the  act,  it  possesses  an 
inherent  vital  principle  which  enables  it  to  reject  certain 
substances  and  select  others  for  its  own  use. 

But  as  man  has  not  as  yet  been  able  to  analyze  this 
vital  principle  which  we  term  life,  or  trace  it — this 
mysterious  force  manifested  in  matter — to  its  source,  hor- 
(11) 


12  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

ticulturists  are  compelled  to  confine  themselves  to  seek- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  best  means  of  promoting  the 
development  and  multiplication  of  the  cells,  which,  in 
their  aggregate  form,  compose  the  plants  that  contribute 
so  much  to  the  welfare  and  pleasure  of  all  members  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  man  included. 

The  plant-cell,  however  minute,  is  not  a  solid  body,  nor 
composed  of  a  single  element,  but  in  structure  is  made 
up  of  several  parts,  and  these  are  the  result  of  a  combina- 
tion of  several  substances.  "Within  the  young  cell  we 
find  a  viscid  liquid,  which  has  received  the  name  of  proto- 
plasm (meaning  formative  matter),  and  usually  floating  in 
this  there  are  numerous  granules,  the  nature  of  which  has 
not  been  fully  determined,  but  they  are  supposed  to  be  a 
kind  of  cell-kernels  or  nuclei,  that  probably  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  production  of  new  cells.  As  the  cell 
acquires  age  and  enlarges,  the  protoplasm  forms  a  gela- 
tinous coating  on  the  inside  of  the  true  cell  membrane, 
or  what  may  be  considered  the  proper  wall  of  the  cell. 
This  membraneous  inner  surface  of  the  cell-wall  is  called 
the  internal  utricle  by  Mulder,  and  primordial  utricle 
by  Mohl.  It  is  only  visible  in  new  and  very  young  cells, 
and  soon  disappears;  but,  when  present,  maybe  detected 
under  the  action  of  a  tincture  of  iodine,  which  turns  it 
yellow.  As  the  cells  thicken  the  internal  utricle,  also 
the  cell-kernels  or  granules,  become  incorporated  with  the 
cell-walls.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  complete 
or  mature  cell  is  made  up  of  three  elements,  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen;  but  in  this  young  and  immature 
state  the  protoplasm  contains  nitrogen,  and  the  nitrogen- 
ous substances  are  known  under  various  names,  such  as 
gluten,  albumen,  and  other  well-known  products  of  veg- 
etables. 

Commencing  with  the  individual  cell,  we  find  them  in 
a  vast  number  of  plants  so  minute  that  they  are  invisible 
to  the  unaided  eye,  and  their  forms  can  only  be  deter- 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS.  13 

mined  by  the  aid  of  the  most  powerful  microscopes.  But 
down  here,  at  or  near  the  unit  of  vegetable  life,  we  find 
perfect  plants  that  consist  of  only  a  single  cell,  and 
among  the  most  familiar  of  them  is  the  yeast  plant 
(Torula  cerevisice)  A  cluster  of 
these  one-celled  plants,  highly 
magnified,  is  shown  in  figure  1. 
There  are  different  species  of  yeast 
plants,  each  of  a  different  form, 
and  all  may  be  propagated,  under 
proper  conditions,  as  readily  as 

Fig.  I.-YEAS.  CELLS.  P^tsof  higher  orders.  TheBac- 
tena  are  among  the  most  mrnute 
and  obscure  race  of  one-celled  organisms,  and  the  in- 
terest in  these  is  increased  on  account  of  their  frequent 
association  with  many  of  the  diseases  of  the  higher 
order  of  plants  and  of  ani- 
mals. There  are  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  species  of 
these  minute  one-celled  plants, 
and  they  assume  a  great  va- 
riety of  forms;  some  are  sim- 
ple round  dots  floating  in 
liquid,  others  in  chains  of 
cells,  while  some  species  are 
ornamented  in  the  most  intri- 
cate geometric  patterns,  while 
others  are  oval,  long,  or  spread 
out  in  a  fan-shape,  as  shown 
in  the  one-celled  alga  (Lic- 

,  7         ,.,    ,      °  Fig.  2.— ONE-CELLED  ALGA. 

mophora  splendida),  figure  2. 

While  these  minute  one-celled  plants  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  development  and  continuation  of  plant- 
life,  still  their  small  size  has,  in  a  measure,  prevented  a 
very  general  acquaintance  with  their  structure  and 
properties,  as  well  as  making  it  somewhat  difficult  to 


PROGAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


trace  the  relations  of  such    low  organisms  through  a 
multiplicity  of  channels  up  to  the  higher  forms  of  plants. 

SIZE  AND  FORM  OF  CELLS. — The  size  and  form  of  cells 
are  infinitely  varied,  and,  as  only  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  the*  known  species  of  plants  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  careful  microscopic  examination,  we  can  only 
gather  an  idea  of  the  many  forms  from  what  we  know  of 
the  few.  Wood  cells  of  different  forms  and  sizes  are 
shown  in  figure  3.  The  size  of  cells  may  be  said  to  vary 
from  y,0  of  an  inch  up  to  y,J00  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 

there  are  probably  some 
that  are  even  of  less  size. 
Not  only  do  the  cells  in 
different  kinds  of  plants 
vary  greatly  in  size,  but 
such  variation  is  also 
found  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  plant.  It  is 
also  known  that  the  cells 
of  a  rapidly  -  growing, 
healthy  plant  are  larger 
than  those  of  one  that  is 
feeble  and  sickly.  In 
form,  cells  vary  from  the 
simple  globule  of  the  yeast 
plant  in  every  conceiv- 
able direction,  frequently  assuming  intricate  geometrical 
figures,  the  ellipsoidal  apparently  springing  from  the 
spherical;  following  upward  we  find  the  cube,  prismatic, 
hexagonal,  stellate,  fusiform,  and  branching  cells.  The 
spherical,  oval  and  elliptical  are  most  common  in  fungi 
and  herbaceous  plants,  the  more  complicated  appearing 
in  shrubs,  trees  and  other  plants  belonging  to  what  are 
termed  the  higher  orders. 

GROWTH  OF  CELLS. — Each  individual  cell  is  a  direct 


Fig.  3.— WOOD  CELLS. 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS.  15 

product  of  other  cells,  or  some  form  of  organizable  matter 
containing  the  elements  of  which  the  cell  is  composed. 
At  6rst  the  cell  consists  of  a  separate  membrane,  but  as 
growth  commences  there  is  a  re-arrangement  of  the 
formative  matter,  varying  according  to  the  characteristics 
of  the  plant  in  the  course  of  development.  In  some  of 
the  lower  forms,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  fully 
developed  plant  consists  of  a  single  cell,  others  of  only 
an  aggregation  of  the  same  or  closely  allied  forms;  but  as 
we  pass  upward,  the  structure  becomes  more  complicated, 
and  there  is  a  greater  variety  in  the  shape  of  the  cells,  as 
well  as  in  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed. 
The  cells  have  the  power  of  multiplication,  new  cells 
springing  from  the  mother  cell ;  these  in  turn  producing 
others,  and  in  plants  like  the  common  puff  ball,  many 
millions  are  produced  in  a  few  hours.  Dr.  Lindley  cal- 
culated that  in  one  gigantic  species,  the  Bovista  Gigantea, 
that  the  cells  were  produced  at  the  rate  of  sixty-six  mil- 
lions in  a  minute.  But  in  such  simple  kinds  of  plants 
as  the  mushrooms  and  sea-weeds,  the  entire  structure  is 
composed  of  what  is  called  cellular  tissues,  a  pulpy  mass 
very  similar  to  that  which  makes  up  the  bulk  of  our 
cultivated  fruits  and  vegetables.  Some  cells  elongate  to 
a  great  length  and  become  a  continuous  hollow  tube,  as 
in  the  filaments  of  Cotton,  or  solid  fibers,  as  in  the  inner 
bark  of  the  Basswood  and  Papaw  tree,  or  in  'such  herba- 
ceous plants  as  the  Ramie,  Hemp,  Jute  and  other  fiber- 
yielding  species.  There  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  way 
cells  are  united.  In  some  of  the  lower  orders  of  plants 
the  cell  walls  separate  as  they  form,  but  in  the  higher 
and  more  complex,  the  walls  of  the  young  cells  are  solid 
and  only  divide  or  split  apart  as  they  advance  in  age. 
In  many  of  the  simple  plants,  the  cells  are  widely  sepa- 
rated and  the  intervals  between  them  is  filled  with  a  semi- 
liquid  mass,  in  which  nothing  that  resembles  a  cell  can  be 
discovered.  But  as  we  advance  to  the  higher  orders  of 


16  PROPAGATION   OF   PLAKTS. 

plants,  a  more  compact  and  systematic  organization  is 
observable  and  the  cell-walls  touch  each  other  at  one  or 
more  points,  permitting  of  the  transmission  of  fluids 
from  one  to  another.  While  young  the  cell-walls  are  so 
thin  that  they  allow  of  a  rapid  transmission  of  fluids  and 
gases,  but  when  they  reach  a  more  mature  condition  the 
walls  become  thick  and  rigid,  but  never  entirely  impervi- 
ous to  liquids,  for  even  dead  plants  will  absorb  moisture, 
and  often  assume  the  forms  and  colors  which  they  pos- 
sessed when  alive.  The  restoration  to  apparent  life  of 
various  species  of  Lycopodiums,  Mosses,  and  the  well- 
known  "Rose  of  Jericho"  (Anastatica  Meroclmntinc), 
are  familiar  examples  of  this  kind.  But  it  is  only  while 
the  cells  are  young  and  contain  protoplasm  that  they  are 
available  for  the  "propagation  of  plants  under  artificial 
conditions.  The  propagator  should  keep  this  in  mind,  as 
it  will  often  be  of  assistance  to  him  iiTselecting  cuEings 
and  cions  of  plants  for  propagation. 

THE  TRAKSUDATION  OF  FLUIDS. — The  inherent 
power  that  cells  possess  of  absorbing  fluids  and  transmit- 
ting them  from  cell  to  cell,  is  the  process  by  which 
nature  enables  plants  to  obtain  nutriment  from  the 
medium  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  whether  it  be 
air,  earth,  water,  or  all  of  these  combined.  This  trans- 
ference of  fluids  from  one  cell  to  another,  by  a  process  of 
transudation,  is  universal  among  plants,  and  while  it  may 
be  said  that  the  energy  displayed  in  the  movement  is 
controlled  by  a  physical  law  applicable  to  both  animal 
and  vegetable  membranes,  still  there  is  a  vital  force  pres- 
ent in  the  living  tissues,  of  the  origin  or  properties  of 
which  we  know  but  little.  The  operations  of  this  force 
or  principle  may  be,  as  is  generally  claimed  by  vegetable 
physiologists,  purely  mechanical,  but  that  it  does  possess 
an  inherent  power  of  selection,  using  certain  material  or 
elements  and  rejecting  others,  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  or, 
as  Dr.  Thayer  has  said,  in  a  paper  on  Plant  Life,  that, 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS.  17 

"  While  some  of  the  little  cells  are  at  work  on  delicious 
honey  and  rare  perfumes,  others  are  engaged  in  com- 
pounding healing  medicines  and  even  deleterious  poisons." 
It  is  quite  within  the  range  of  possibilities  that  plants 
possess  the  power  of  discrimination  or  choice,  irrespec- 
tive of  their  mechanical  structure,  and  this  may,  in  part 
at  least,  account  for  their  responsive  action  to  certain 
stimulants  and  not  to  others.  Of  course  we  are  not  to 
suppose  that  plants  possess  any  functions  corresponding 
with  mind  in  animals,  but  they  do  possess  a  sensitiveness, 
which  often  nearly  approaches,  if  it  does  not  quite  reach, 
the  realms  of  intelligence.  The  physical  process  in 
obedience  to  which  fluids  pass  from  cell  to  cell,  or  through 
any  permeable  membrane,  has  been  named  enclosmosis 
and  exosmosis.  The  first  is  given  to  the  inward  flow  and 
the  other  to  the  outward.  These  names  were  applied  by 
H.  J.  Dutrochet,  an  eminent  French  physiologist,  who 
wrote  several  valuable  treatises  on  animal  and  vegetable 
physiology,  published  in  Paris  between  1824  and  1837, 
and  since  his  time  the  above  terms  have  been  in  common 
use.  The  explanation  of  this  process  of  transudation  is, 
that  liquids  of  different  density,  placed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  permeable  membrane,  are  naturally  attracted  or  flow 
towards  each  other,  and  sooner  or  later  become  inter- 
mingled. The  thinnest  liquid  will  flow  towards  and  into 
the  thicker,  and  this  movement  is  called  endosmose, 
while  at  the  same  time  a  much  smaller  amount  of  the 
thicker  will  flow  out  into  the  thinner  (exosmose),  until 
both  become  of  equal  density.  A  linen  or  silk  bag,  filled 
with  honey  or  thick  syrup,  and  suspended  in  a  pail  of  water 
will  furnish  a  good  illustration  of  the  movements  of  fluids 
by  transudation,  for  while  the  water  will  flow  in,  some  of 
the  honey  will  be  dissolved,  thinned,  and  then  flow  out, 
this  process  continuing  until  the  entire  liquid  becomes 
merely  honey-flavored  or  sweetened  water,  and  of  the 
same  density  throughout.  The  same  kind  of  interchange, 


18  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

as  it  may  be  termed,  takes  place  when  the  living  tissues 
of  any  two  closely  allied  plants  are  placed  in  contact,  as 
in  the  common  operations  of  budding  and  grafting,  for 
it  will  seldom  occur  that  the  density  of  the  fluids  in  both 
sto'ck  and  cion,  or  even  a  bud,  will  be  exactly  the  same; 
consequently,  a  movement,  however  feeble  at  first,  must 
follow  close  contact  of  the  living  plant-cells.  In  some 
instances,  as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  show  in  a  succeeding 
chapter,  the  greater  the  difference  in  density  of  the 
fluids,  the  more  likely  are  the  two  parts  to  unite  quickly 
and  permanently.  But  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the 
transmission  of  fluids  from  cell  to  cell  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  make  those  of  one  plant  support  another,  or  to 
insure  a  union  between  the  severed  parts  of  two  species 
or  varieties,  as  in  the  operations  of  budding  and  grafting, 
for  there  is  an  individuality  of  plants  not  always  easily 
recognized;  still,  it  exists,  and  while  the  transudation  of 
fluids  may  take  place,  there  must  also  exist  an  affinity  be- 
tween stock  and  cion  to  insure  the  coalescing  of  cells. 
The  principle  involved  cannot,  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge of  life  in  plants,  be  fully  explained,  and  vegetable 
physiologists  usually  refer  to  the  movement  of  fluids  in 
plants  as  a  mechanical  process,  probably  because  this  is 
the  easiest  way  of  bridging  a  chasm  that  they  cannot 
fathom.  The  sup  of  the  Oak  may  flow  into  a  cion  from 
a  Hickory  by  the  process  of  transudation,  but  the  cells  of 
the  latter  refuse  to  use  it,  or  even  respond  to  a  stimulus 
from  such  a  source.  This  individuality  in  the  functions 
of  cells  enables  one  part  of  a  plant  to  be  engaged  in  ac- 
cumulating very  different  elements  from  those  of  other 
parts.  The  leaves,  flowers,  roots  and  bark  may  all  be 
manufacturing,  as  it  were,  quite  different  substances. 
The  petals  of  the  Rose  emit  a  different  scent  from  that  of 
the  leaf  or  other  part  of  the  plant,  and  that  this  fra- 
grance is  a  distinct  product  of  their  cells  is  shown  in 
the  attar  of  Roses  distilled  therefrom.  Then  again 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS.  19 

almost  every  different  variety  of  the  Eose  has  an  indi- 
vidual fragrance  of  its  own,  which  is  only  emitted  while 
the  cells  remain  in  their  natural  and  original  form. 
The  bark-cells  of  many  species  of  plants  yield  valuable 
products  not  to  be  found  in  any  considerable  amount  in 
other  parts  of  the  same  plant,  as  in  the  bark  of  the  Cin- 
namon tree,  Benzoin,  Peruvian  bark,  and  in  the  root-bark 
of  the  Sassafras.  In  other  plants  the  roots  may  yield  a 
large  amount  of  coloring  matter,  as  in  those  of  the 
Madder,  while  only  a  trace  of  it  appears  in  the  stems  and 
leaves.  Seeds  of  some  kinds  of  plants  yield  oil  in  the 
greatest  profusion,  with  little  or  none  in  other  parts;  Flax, 
Rape  and  Cotton  seed  are  familiar  instances  of  this  kind. 
Some  seeds  contain  most  powerful  poisons,  like  those  of 
the  Strychnos,  while  the  pulp  surrounding  them  is  in- 
noxious. The  Peach  tree  yields  the  most  luscious  of 
fruits,  while  from  the  seed  maybe  extracted  Prussic  acid, 
the  most  virulent  of  all  known  vegetable  poisons. 
Special  deposits  of  special  elements  in  the  same  plant 
may  be  considered  the  rule  in  nearly  all  of  those  most 
useful  to  man,  and  yet  all  these  various  substances  are 
derived  from  the  same  sources,  and  are  composed  of 
simple  elements,  known  by  less  than  a  half  dozen  differ- 
ent names.  A  plant,  therefore,  is  in  itself  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  within  its  minute  cells  systematical  evolu- 
tions are  in  progress,  which  we  can  neither  see  or  fully 
understand,  but  the  results  are  quite  apparent  to  some 
one  or  all  of  our  senses. 


20  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 
MOVEMENT  AND  KEORGANIZATION  OF  CELLS. 

There  is  always  a  struggle  in  nature  to  right  herself 
after  any  disturbing  cause  has  interrupted  her  ordinary 
currents  and  conditions,  and  the  propagator  of  plants  is 
constantly  doing  this,  especially  when  multiplying  plants 
by  division  of  cellular  and  woody  tissues.  Young  and 
active  cells  contain  matter  that  not  only  serves  for  the 
completion  of  the  cell  itself,  but  for  the  formation  of  new 
cells,  and  it  is  to  the  latter  principle  that  we  must  attri- 
bute the  ready  response  of  vegetable  structures  to  vari- 
ous stimulants  and  irritants.  When  a  mass  of  cells  is 
artificially  divided  or  separated,  as  in  the  operation  of 
making  cuttings  of  the  stems  and  roots  of  ligneous  plants, 
or  of  cellular  matter,  as  found  in-many  bulbs  and  tubers, 
the  exposed  cells  immediately  make  an  effort  to  heal  or 
cover  the  wound  with  new  cells  and  restore  the  missing 
parts. 

A  severed  root  may,  under  favorable  conditions,  throw 
out  new  rootlets  to  take  the  place  of  the  part  removed, 
and  from  the  exposed  cells,  made  in  removing  a  branch  of 
a  tree  or  shrub,  new  shoots  often  appear.  Cuttings  made 
of  young  twigs  strive  to  furnish  themselves  with  ne\v 
roots  wherewith  to  gather  nutriment,  and  in  all  these 
various  operations,  there  is  a  movement  of  cell-matter 
resulting  in  the  production  of  new  cells,  no  matter  what 
form  they  may  subsequently  assume  ;  whether  it  be  that 
of  roots,  leaves,  or  any  other  of  the  many  parts  and  ap- 
pendages of  plants. 

The  movement  of  cell-matter  under  multifarious  con- 
ditions appears  to  be  always  in  response  to  either  a 
stimulant  or  irritant,  and  whatever  other  stimulant  there 
may  be  present,  that  of  heat  is  of  paramount  import- 


MOVEMENT  AND   KEOKGANIZATION   OF   CELLS.         21 

ance.  It  may  be  that  only  one  or  two  degrees  above  the 
freezing  point  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  promote  action 
in  the  vegetable  cells  of  certain  plants  indigenous  to 
cold  latitudes,  still,  this  is  just  as  indispensable  as  sixty 
or  seventy  degrees  higher  temperature  is  for  producing  a 
similar  movement  in  the  cells  of  those  inhabiting  tropical 
climates. 

It  is  to  this  movement  of  cell-matter,  in  response  to  a 
stimulant,  that  we  are  indebted  for  all  the  benefits  and 
advantages  derived  from  the  artificial  methods  of  propa- 
gating plants.  The  gardener's  art  consists  principally 
in  taking  advantage  of  what  he  has  here  learned  in  regard 
to  the  natural  functions  and  properties  of  plants. 

The  uniformity  of  the  movement  of  cell-matter  has 
enabled  the  propagator  to  formulate  certain  operations 
in  order  that  they  may  be  conducted  under  uniform 
conditions,  and  for  the  express  purpose  of  producing 
uniform  results.  Under  certain  conditions,  he  is  enabled 
to  make  the  cells  of  one  plant  throw  out  new  cells  which 
unite  firmly  with  those  of  another,  thereby  admitting  of 
the  passage  of  fluids,  as  in  the  operations  known  as  bud- 
ding and  grafting.  But  under  other  and  different .  con- 
(jitions,  this  exuded  cell-matter  may  become  roots,  cap- 
able of  absorbing  nutriment  directly  from  surrounding 
elements  in  the  soil,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  true^epi- 
pli\tes,  from  the  atmosphere. 

In  the  formation  of  knots  on  ligneous  plants  there  is 
certainly  a  deviation  from  natural  channels  in  the  de- 

" Si  ^***^IB|l|l<l"l^py^^^^*'^**p^^ 

positing  of  cell-matter.  A  few  cells  at  first,  through 
some  obstruction  or  disturbing  cause,  are  forced  out  of  a 
direct  course,  and  the  next  layer  of  woody  tissues  de- 
posited must  pass  over  or  around  the  obstruction,  this 
being  repeated  year  after  year,  until  the  entire  abnormal 
structure  is  complete  and  built  up,  in  many  instances,  to 
an  enormous  size  ;  for  Ash-knots  two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  weighing  a  hundred  pounds,  are  not  un- 


22  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

common  in  many  of  the  forests  of  our  Northern  States. 
The  grain  of  these  knots  appears  to  be  formed  by  cells 
propelled  by  some  cyclonic  force  that  gave  to  them  a 
rotating  motion,  and  yet  there  is  a  uniformity  in  this 
distorted  re-arrangement.  Another  peculiarity  of  these 
knots  is,  that  the  bark  covering  them  always  partakes  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  wood  underneath  and  is  fully  as 
variable  in  structure. 

But  what  may  be  termed  the  formative  principle  in 
plants,  is  always  a  potent  power,  and  while  frequently  ap- 
pearing to  promote  abnormal  growths,  is  equally  power- 
ful in  assisting  the  re- arrangement  of  cell-matter  for 
continuing  and  perpetuating  natural  forms.  The  move- 
ment and  re-arrangement  of  cell-matter  under  artificial 
conditions  must  have  often  been  observed  by  all  farmers 
and  gardeners,  although  probably  few  of  those  engaged 
in  these  pursuits  ever  think  these  phenomena  worthy  of 
any  special  attention  or  study.  An  excellent  illustration 
of  this  movement  or  action  of  cells  is  often  found  among 
the  tubers  of  the  common  Potato,  that  have  been  stored 
in  cellars  or  pits  where  the  temperature  was  a  little  too 
high  to  insure  perfect  inactivity.  An  increase  of  tem- 
perature a  few  degrees  above  the  passive  point  tends  to 
incite  action  in  the  cells,  and  the  most  natural  result 
would  be  a  growth  from  the  eyes  or  buds,  which  very 
frequently,  if 'not  generally,  follows.  But  it  is  in  the 
abnormal  growths  that  we  obtain  the  best  illustration  of 
the  potency  of  the  formative  principle,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  not  unfamiliar  production  of  new  tubers  on  the  out- 
side or  within  large  hollow  Potatoes.  No  leaves,  stems, 
or  roots  are  produced  to  assist  the  growth  of  these  new 
tubers,  but  the  starchy  cell- matter  of  the  old  Potato 
moves  inward  or  outward,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  in  re- 
forming, builds  up  an  entirely  new  structure  out  of  the 
materials  obtained  from  the  old.  These  new  tubers, 
produced  in  the  absence  of  light,  have  well-formed  buds 


MOVEMENT  AKD   REORGANIZATION   OF   CELLS.         23 

or  eyes  on  their  surface,  and,  in  fact,  are  in  every  respect 
typical  representatives  of  their  parents,  and  yet  the  con- 
ditions under  which  they  have  grown  are  certainly  ab- 
normal or  unnatural. 

Similar  movements  of  cell-matter,  as  seen  in  the  Po- 
tato, .  occur  in  other 
species  of  tubers  and 
bulbs,  and  they  may  be 
looked  for  among  all 
families  of  plants  when 
'  placed  under  artificial 
conditions,  or  subjected 
to  injury  or  serious  dis- 
turbance of  any  kind. 
Propagators  of  plants 
can,  and  often  do,  utilize 
these  abnormal  growths, 
produced  by  the  reor- 
ganization of  cell-mat- 
ter, in  the  multiplica- 
tion of  various  species 

.     ,.  ,    l  Fig.  4.— BULB  OF  LILIUM  SPEC1OSUM. 

and  varieties  under  cul- 
tivation. For  instance,  with  the  scaly  bulbs  of  Lilies, 
like  those  of  L.  spcciosum,  shown  in  figure  4,  we  have 
a  complete  and  perfect  structure  which,  if  planted  en- 
tire, will  produce  its  one,  or,  at  most,  two 
flower  stems,  with  leaves  scattered  along  their 
entire  length,  the  roots  gathering  nutriment 
from  the  soil  for  the  support  of  the  plant.  But 
if  we  separate  the  individual  scales  and  .place 
them  in  a  congenial  material,  such  as  moist 
earth,  sand  or  moss,  keeping  them  only  moder- 
ately warm,  and  allow  sufficient  time  for  the 
change,  eacji  scale  will  produce  a  small  bulb, 
an  exact  counterpart  of  the  parent  bulb.  A  small 
scale  is  shown  in  figure  5,  as  it  appears  when  un- 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


dergoing  a  change  of  structure.  A  cell  near  the  base 
of  the  detached  scale  draws  to  itself  the  cell-matter  of 
an  adjoining  one,  the  two  add  other  cells,  all  deriving 
their  support  from  the  contents  of  the  old  cells,  and 
from  these  reservoirs  of  nutriment  a  new  scaly  bulb  of 
the  exact  type  of  the  old  or  parent  bulb  is  built  up,  just 
as  occurred  in  the  formation  of  a  new  tuber  out  of  the 
materials  of  the  old  one  in  the  Potato.  Sametirnes  sev- 
eral bulbs  will  be  produced  from  a 
single  scale,  as  the  formative  principle 
may  become  active  in  one  or  more  cells 
at  the  same  time.  These  scales,  in 
their  aggregate  form,  make  a  complete 
or  perfect  bulb,,  are  really  sessile  sub- 
terranean leaves,  which,  as  shown, 
possess  an  inherent  power  of  repro- 
ducing their  kind  in  the  absence  of 
any  additional  organic  material  from 
other  sources. 

.That  the  cell-matter  of  these  sub- 
terranean scales  or  leaves  is  not  specifi- 
cally different  from  that  of  which  the 
upper  or  stem  leaves  is  composed,  is 
readily  shown  when  the  old  or  main 
bulbs  are  planted  so  deep  that  a  few 
inches  of  the  base  of  the  flower  stem 
will  be  covered  with  soil.  Tlio.  flower 
stems  of  this  species  of  Lily,  as  stated, 
produce  leaves  along  their  entire  length, 
but  those  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  are  prevented  from  developing 
into  true  aerial  leaves  ;  consequently 
the  cell-matter  provided  by  other  parts  of  the  plant  is  re- 
organized and  becomes  small  bulbs  (figure  6),  which  emit 
roots  for  their  individual  use  and  support  later  in  the 
season,  when  they  will  be  cast  off  by  the  mature  and 


Fig.  6. 

LILT  BULBS   ON  THE 
FLOWER  STEM. 


MOVEMENT   AND   REORGANIZATION   OF   CELLS.         25 


ripened  parent  stem.  That  these  stem  bulbs  are  the  pro- 
duct of  reorganized  cell-matter,  which,  under  other  con- 
ditions, would  have  spread  out  into  long,  thin,  aerial,  and 
true  leaves,  is  quite  evident  from  the  fact  that  tney  are 
only  produced  at  the  point  where  an  embryo  leaf-bud 
had  formed  a  junction  with  the  stem.  It  is  not  only 
in  the  propagation  of  plants  under  artificial  conditions 
that  we  find  great  uniform- 
ity in  the  movement  of  cell- 
matter  proceeding  from 
uniform  causes,  but  it  is 
also  observable  in  the  re- 
sults of  attacks  and  injuries 
inflicted  by  insects.  In  the 
growth  of  what  are  called 

53. 

galTs'on  plants,  produced, 

so  far  as  known,  by  the  irri- 

tation caused  in  depositing 

eggs,  or  the  presence  of  the 

larvae    hatched   therefrom, 

the  results  are  so  uniform 

that    the    entomologist    is 

enabled,   at    a    glance,    to  Fig. 

identify  the  inhabitants  of  galls  by  the  structure  and 

outward  appearance  of  their  dwellings. 

Why  the  irritation  caused  by  the  depositing  of  a  few 
minute  eggs  by  a  small  four-  winged  black  fly  (Gynips 
spongifica),  on  the  leaf-stalk  of  the  Black  Qal^  should 
cause  cell-matter  to  rush  to  that  part,  and  form  a  large 
puffy  gall  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and  of  a  speci- 
fic structure,  differing  widely  from  those  produced  by  a 
closely-related  insect  upon  other  species  of  the  Oak,  we 
do  not  know  ;  but  the  fact  that  every  distinct  species  of 
Cynips  produces  a  different  gall  is  well  known  to  every 
entomologist.  (Figure  7  —  a,  larva  in  center;  b,  hole 
where  the  fly  escaped.) 


GALL. 


26  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

In  the  true  Oak  Apple  (figure  7),  the  cell-matter  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  Iarva3  in  the  center  of  the 
gall  becomes  very  hard  and  woody,  while  the  space  be- 
tween this  center  kernel  and  the  rind  of  the  gall  is  filled 
with  a  grayish,  light,  spongy  matter.  In  what  is  called 
the  "  Bastard  Oak- Apple/''  produced  by  the  Cynips 
inanis  on  the  Red  Oak,  the  central  kernel  or  cell  is  not 
hard  and  woody,  and  the  rind  is  connected  with  the 
center  by  slender  radiating  filaments,  as  shown  in  figure 
8.  Another  species  of  Oynips  produces  a  very  distinct 
gall  on  the  acorn  of  both  the  Black  and  Red  Oak  indis- 
criminately. Different  species  of  insects  not  only  pro- 
duce different  kinds  of  galls  on  the  Oak,  but  upon  vari- 
ous other  kinds  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  even  upon 
many  herbaceous  plants. 
The  Pine-cone  Gall  of  the 
Willow  is  a  familiar  object 
in  every  swamp  where  the 
Heart-leaved  Willow  (Salix 
cor  data),  is  found,  and  is 
the  result  of  the  depositing 
of  eggs  of  a  minute  species 
of  gall-gnat.  As  soon  as  the 
eggs  are  deposited  in  the 
young  twig  of  the  Willow, 
the  cell-matter  proceeds  to 
form  a  cone-like  structure, 
something  entirely  differ- 

Fig.  8.— BASTAKD  OAK  APPLE. 

ent  and  entirely  foreign  to 

the  natural  functions  of  the  plant,  and  this  movement 
continues  until  the  gall  is  complete,  the  outer  part  being 
covered  with  regularly  formed  scales,  the  whole  resem- 
bling a  small  pine  cone.  There  may  be  thousands  of  these 
galls  in  the  same  field  or  swamp,  but  all  will  be  found 
nearly  of  one  size,  and  built  up  on  the  same  general  plan. 


MOVEMENT   AND    REORGANIZATION   OF   CELLS.         27 

Where  different  species  of  insects,  so  far  as  our  knowl- 
edge enables  us  to  determine,  produce  galls  out  of  ident- 
ically the  same  materials,  they  are  invariably  of  a  differ- 
ent structure  and  form,  showing  that  however  slight  the 
variation  in  the  chemical  or  mechanical  nature  of  the 
cause,  the  results  may  be  widely  variable.  For  instance, 
there  are  several  species  of  gall-gnats  that  breed  in  the 
Grape-vine,  but  each  produces  a  distinct  form  of  gall. 
One  species  that  attacks  the  young  succulent  canes 
makes  a  gall  somewhat  resembling  a  small  apple,  and  it 
is  known  as  the  "Apple  Gall"  of  the  vine,  while  the 
habitation  of  another  species  resembles  a  cluster  of  fil- 


.  9.—  TRUMPET  GALL  ON  GRAPE-LEAF. 


berts.  The  same  rule  holds  good  with  galls  produced  on 
the  leaves  of  the  Grape-vine.  TJie  galls  produced  by  the 
minute  parasite  formerly  known  as  Pemphigus  vitifolia, 
Fitch,  but  now  as  Phylloxera  vastatrix,  Planchon,  .appear 
Qn  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  and  are  merely  small  green 
fleshy  swellings,  more  or  less  wrinkled,  and  with  a  slight 
depression  on  the  upper  side,  forming  -\  <  m- 


of  hairy  or  pubescent  margin.     But  in  another  leaf-gall, 
known  as  the  "Trumpet  Grape-gall,"  produced  by  a 


28  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

small  species  of  Gall-gnat  (Cecidomyia),  the  eggs  are 
deposited  on  or  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  the 
cell-matter,  moving  to  the  point  of  irritation,  builds  up 
a  trumpet-like  gall  (figure  9),  a  quarter  to  one-third  of 
an  inch  in  length.  These  galls,  when  produced  on  the 
leaves  of  wild  vines  having  reddish  petioles  or  leaf 
stalks,  assume  the  same  color,  and  on  others  they  are 
greenish  white,  showing  that  the  cell-matter,  when  re- 
sponding to  an  irritant,  may  not  change  its  natural 
chemical  properties  any  more  than  it  would  in  respond- 
ing to  a  stimulant,  and  guided  by  the  formative  prin- 
ciple while  perfecting  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

We  are  not  to  suppose  that  these  galls  are  necessarily 
injurious  to  plants,  for  while  the  normal  conditions  and 
channels  of  circulation  may  be  temporarily  changed, 
followed  by  a  re-forming  of  cell-matter  under  new  con- 
ditions, and  for  the  express  purpose  of  giving  food  and 
protection  to  an  insect,  still  the  tissues  of  which  these 
galls  are  composed  are  generally  healthy,  and  are,  without 
doubt,  capable  of  performing  the  regular  functions  of 
assimilation,, 


CHAPTER   III. 
ORIGIN  AND  KINDS  OF^gTOS. 

The  origin  of  buds  is  a  subject  that  has  received  much 
attention  from  vegetable  physiologists,  but  in  pursuing 
their  investigations  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many  of  them 
have  been  more  anxious  to  confirm  some  previously  con- 
ceived theory  than  to  discover  the  truth  from  actual  per- 
sonal research. 

Beginning  at  the  unit  of  vegetable  structures,  we  find 
plants  composed  of  a  single  cell.  In  the  multiplication 
or  growth  of  these  single  cells  a  new  cell  is  produced — 


ORIGIK   AKD   KINDS  OF  BUDS.  29 

in  other  words,  it  puts  forth  a  bud,  this  in  turn  another ; 
these,  however,  are  only  single  cell  buds,  but  as  we 
advance  upward  in  the  scale  we  find  plants  composed  of 
an  aggregation  of  cells,  therefore  compound  in  their 
structure,  and  their  buds,  assuming  the  parent  form,  are 
also  made  up  of  a  number  of  cells,  arranged  in  regular 
order,  through  the  controlling  influence  of  what  is  called 
the  formative  or  living  principle.  Keeping  the  fact 
in  mind  that  new  cells  are  always  the  product  of  other, 
or  parent  cells,  and  that  in  the  re-arrangement  of  cell- 
matter,  or  growth,  the  new  cells  preserve  their  typical 
form,  we  can  readily  understand  how  buds,  even  of  the 
most  complicated  structure,  may,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, be  produced  from  living  organizable  vegetable 
matter,  on  or  within  any  part  or  appendage  of  a  plant. 
It  is  true  that,  when  plants  are  under  normal  conditons 
and  with  room  for  full  development,  they  produce  buds 
uniformly  at  certain  points  and  not  elsewhere  ;  but  it  is 
seldom  that  a  plant  is  so  favorably  situated  as  .got  to  be 
disturbed  at  some  period  in  its  life;  consequently,  ajmor- 
mal  growths  may  become  hereditary  through  the  oft- 
recurring  influence  of  abnormal  conditions.  In  a  state  of 
nature,  there  is  usually  more  or  less  crowding  among 
plants,  and  parts  are  disturbed,  broken,  or  destroyed. 
The  larger  animals  trample  upon  the  small  and  young 
plants,  or  later  in  life  browse  upon  the  stems  and 
branches,  while  insect  enemies  sting,  cut  and  wound 
plants  in  various  ways,  consequently  there  is  always  a 
struggle  for  existence,  which  begets  a  necessity  for  a  de- 
parture from  what,  under  other  conditions,  would  be 
the  natural  order  of  growth. 

There  are  as  many  dijSjerent  forms  of  buds,  as  there 
are  different  species  of  plants,  but  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, they  may  all  be  arranged  under  five  groups, 
viz. :  The  (1)  terminal,  (2)  axillary,  (3)  accessory,  (4) 
fruit  bud,  (5)  adventitious.  Buds,  although  of  various 


30 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


forms,  are  generally,  in  the  higher  order  of  plants,  com- 
posed of  imbricated  scales,  enclosing  the  rudiments  of 
stems,  leaves,  or  organs  of  reproduction.  The  ter- 
minal bud  is  situated  on  the  en^^of  a^stem^or  branch  (as 
in  ng.  J.O),  and  the  axillary  bud  on  the  side  just  below, 
and  usually  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  this  bud  may 
either  grow  and  become  a  branch  or  remain  dormant,  or 
be  entirely  overgrown  and  obliterated.  The  terroinal 
and  the  axillary  buds  are  really  t^e  sagejp. 
structure  and  importance,  for  if  the  terminal 
buabe  destroyed,  the  one  next  below  it  be- 
comes the  terminal,  and  the  elongation  of 
the  stem  or  branch  proceeds  with  but  a  slight 
check.  It  is  seldom  that  all  of  the  axillary 
buds  become  branches,  as  only  the  strongest 
and  most  favorably  situated  grow,  for  nature, 
in  her  prodigality,  provides  more  than  are 
required  in  the  regular  order  of  growth. 
The  accessory  bud  is  merely  one  of  a  cluster 
of  buds  sometimes  surrounding  the  base  of 
a  terminal,  but  more  frequently  accompany- 
ig  the  axillary  buds.  If  by  accident  or 
otherwise  the  regular  terminal  or  axillary 
bud  is  destroyed,  the  accessory  buds  take  their  place, 
one  or  more  of  their  number  growing.  These  ac- 
cessory buds  are  not  only  found  on  the  stems  of 
annual  and  perennial  plants,  both  herbaceous  and 
ligneous,  but  also  scattered  over  the  surface  of  such 
tubers  as  the  common  Potato  and  Jerusalem  Artichoke. 
In  other  tubers  and  bulbs  they  are  found  clustered  at 
the  crown  or  apex,  as  in  the  tubers  of  the  Dahlia,  Herba- 
ceous Paeony  and  bulbs  like  the  Turnip,  Beet,  Crocus  and 
Gladiolus.  Then,  again,  we  find  the  axillary  and  acces- 
sory buds  distributed  along  subterranean  stems  of  various 
kinds  of  plants,  and  naturally  they  are  only  produced  at 
the  nodes  or  joints,  as  seen  on  the  cane  of  the  Grape-vine 


BUDS. 


ORIGIN  AND  KINDS  OF  BUDS. 


31 


Fig.  11.— WOOD  SORREL  (Oxalis  Acetoxlla). 


32  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

or  the  underground  brandies  of  the  Canada  Thistle  and 
common  Wood  Sorrel  (Oxalis  Acetosella) ,  shown  at  a  and 
I,  figure  11. 

The  propagators  make  extensive  use  of  all  these  forms 
of  buds,  in  multiplying  the  various  kinds  of  plants  under 
cultivation. 

Frtqi^bu^s  appear  on  plants  in  the  same  position  as 
other  buds  of  the  regular  form — that  is,  they  are  either 
ter^minaj_oi\4ateral,  but  principally  the  latter ;  on  trees 
they  are  often  found  on  short  spurs,  which  remain  pro- 
ductive for  many  years.  These  buds  contain  the  embryo 
organs  of  the  flower,  and  in  many  kinds  of  plants  they 
are  formed  the  season  previous  to  their  full  development. 
But  the  production  of  visible  fruit-buds  is  by  no  means 
a  universal  characteristic  of  plants,  for  in  many  orders, 
and  especially  among  cryptogamous  plants  (Ferns,  Sela- 
ginellas,  Mosses,  etc.),  true  flowers  or  flower-buds  are 
unknown,  for  the  spores,  which  answer  the  purpose  of 
seeds  in  the  higher  orders,  are  developed  on  the  stems, 
leaves  or  other  appendages  of  the  plants,  without  the 
appearance  of  any  previously  formed  organ  in  the  least 
resembling  flower  or  fruit-buds.  Still,  some  of  these 
plants  produce  both  aerial  and  subterranean  buds  as 
freely  and  with  as  great  uniformity  as  the  most  common 
of  our  cultivated  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  spores  of  these  cryptogams  are  also  produced  with  as 
great  regularity  and  distinctness  of  form  and  position  on 
the  plant,  and  are  usually  as  available  for  the  purpose  of 
propagation,  as  the  most  perfect  and  highly  developed 
seeds. 

Adventitious  buds  have  long  been  a  source  of  discord 
among  vegetable  physiologists,  and  some  of  the  old  and 
erroneous  theories  are  not  as  yet  quite  obsolete.  It 
is  less  than  a  centu<ry_ago  that  several  learned  European 
botanists^daimed  that  evejr^Jbud  on  the  stem  of  a  tree 
was,  an  embryo  plant  fixed  in  position,  but  sending  its 


ORIGIN"   AND   KINDS  OF  BUDS.  33 

roots  downward  and  its  leaves  upward,  having  a  kind  of 
individual  existence  in  the  performance  of  its  natural 
functions.  All  buds  that  might  appear  on  the  stem,  and 
of  the  regular  order,  were  supposed  to  be  developed  dor- 
mant or  latent  buds  that  had  remained  inactive  from 
the  time  they  were  originally  produced  on  the  young 
stem  when  it  was  first  clothed  with  leaves.  The  idea 
that  buds  could  be  developed  or  formed  out  of  the  young 
cell-matter  at  any  time  or  at  any  point,  on  certain  kinds 
of  plants,  seems  never  to  have  occurred  to  many  of  these 
earlier  investigators,  and,  I  may  add,  even  to  some  still 
living.  That  ^ud^  do  lie  dojjjiajjt  for.  a. time — "-years  in 
some  instances— must  be  admitted,  but  this  will  not  ac- 
count for  their  frequent  appearance  on  parts  of  plants 
where  no  bud  could  have  previously  existed,  as  on  the 
internodes  of  the  stems  and 
branches,  as  well  as  on  leaves 
and  true  roots.  In  seeking 
for  the  origin  of  these  ad- 
ventitious or  chance  buds,  we 
have  no  occasion  to  confine 
our  investigations  to  a  single 
order  of  plants,  because  they 
constantly  appear  in  a  vast  _ 

J£  *  .          -,.,.,  ,     Fig.  12.—  R08P-LEAF  AS  CUTTING. 

number  or  species  distributed 

among  widely  separated  genera  and  families,  and  it 
is  not  at  all  difficult  to  jirace  tljeir  sourajtojjic^ 
^reorganization  of  cell-matter.  The  lealfTrf  aTfcose  cannot' ' 
be  said  to  contain  buds  of  any  kind,  still  it  will,  when 
stripped  from  the  stem,  with  no  wood  or  bark  attached, 
and  placed  under  favorable  conditions,  produce  roots  and 
a  bud  near  the  base  of  the  stalk  or  petiole,  as  shown  in 
figure  12.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Bryophyllum,  some 
Begonias,  and  hundreds  of  other  familiar  and  well-known 
plants  that  florists  are  constantly  propagating  by  leaves, 
and  even  minute  portions  of  a  leaf.  Even  the  bark 


34  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

taken  from  tlio  internodes  of  some  kjnd  of  plants,  where 
there  are  no  indications  of  the  existence  of  dormant 
buds,  will  produce  both  roots  and  buds.  Were  it  not  for 
our  modern  facilities — notably,  the  microscope — we  might 
be  inclined  to  account  for  the  origin  of  these  chance  buds 
by  supposing,  as  claimed  by  some  of  the  earlier  botanists, 
that  the  germ?  or  embryo  buds  were  floating  about  in 
the  sap  of  the  plants,  ever  ready  to  develop  when  an  op- 
portunity offered. 

H.  F.  Link,  a  celebrated  German  botanist  of  a  half 
century  ago,  says:  (C  The  adventitious  buds  are  distin- 
guished from  the  axillary  buds  by  their  structure ;  in 
the  latter,  the  greater  part  of  the  pith  goes  with  the 
wood  into  the  supporting  leaf,  and  in  the  former  the 
entire  amount  of  pith  passes  into  the  bud."  But  Prof. 
Link's  distinction  between  axillary  and  adventitious 
buds  were  more  imaginary  than  real,  and  that  the  pith 
of  even  ligneous  plants  supporting  the  leaf  was  long 
since  shown  to  be  erroneous.  Dr.  J.  M.  Schleiden,  in 
his  "  Principles  of  Botany,"  published  about  forty  years 
ago,  in  speaking  of  adventitious  buds  of  perennial  plants 
with  vegetation  periodically  dormant,  says  :  "  that  the 
axillary  and  adventitious  buds  are  only  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  mode  of  development,"  and  further  that, 
"each  stem,  whether  a  common  one  or. a  root  stem,  can 
develop  a  bud.  These  buds  are  caused,  not  only  by  ac- 
cidental and  intentional  wounding  of  the  stem,  but  also 
hvthe  inclination  of  plants  to  develop  buds  at  certain 
glaces."  However  much  later  botanists  may  disagree 
wTFn  Prof.  Schleiden  in  regard  to  his  pet  theories  and 
caustic  denunciation  of  some  of  those  advanced  by  his 
contemporaries,  practical  horticulturists  of  the  present 
day  will  certainly  agree  with  him  as  to  the  appearance 
and  origin  of  adventitious  buds,  although,  in  the  chapter 
previous  to  the  one  from  which  the  above  remarks  are 
copied,  he  states  distinctly  that,  in  Dicotyledons,  "no 


ORIGIN  AND  KINDS  OF  BUDS.  35 

root  is  capable  of  producing  buds,"  p.  220.  But,  as  I 
have  said,  adventitious  buds  appear  as  freely  on  roots  as 
on  leaves,  and  under  similar  conditions,  but  vegetable 
physiologists  seem  to  be  inclined  to  ignore  the  fact,  or 
get  around  it  by  saying  that  when  a  root  produces  a  bud 
it  should  be  considered  as  a  subterranean  stem.  The  late 
Dr.  Lindley  in  his  "Theory  of  Horticulture  "  says:  "In 
general,  roots  have  no  buds,  and  are  therefore  incapable 
of  multiplying  the  plant  to  which  they  belong,"  but  he 
adds,  "  that  it  constantly  happens  in  some  species  that 
they  have  the  power  of  forming  what  are  called  adven- 
titious buds;  and,  in  such  cases,  they  may  be  employed 
for  the  purposes  of  propagation." 

Prof.  Asa  Gray,  in  his  "Structural  Botany,"  Chap. 
iii.,  p.  82,  says  that,  although  roots  are  not  naturally 
furnished  with  buds,  yet,  under  certain  circumstances, 
those  of  many  trees  and  shrubs  and  some  herbs,  have  the 
power  of  producing  them.  Again,  in  Chap,  iv.,  p.  98, 
he  says  of  adventitious  buds:  "  It  has  been  already  re- 
marked that  roots,  although  naturally  destitute  of  buds, 
do  yet  produce  them  in  certain  plants,  especially  when 
wounded."  This  is  very  true,  but  there  are  many  species 
of  plants,  and  notably  among  these  the  Wild  Raspberry  of 
both  Europe  and  America,  that  multiply  naturally  and 
rapidly  from  adventitious  buds  on  their  true  roots,  as 
well  as  from  those  developed  on  what  are  usually  con- 
sidered as  subterranean  stems. 

With  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  in  regard  to 
the  structure  of  plants,  it  would  not  be  wise,  to  say  the 
least,  to  attempt  to  fix  a  limit  to  the  range  of  adventi- 
tia^Jyucig,  for,  as  I  have  already  said,  their  origin  de- 
pends .largely  upon  the  vital  energies  of  the  parent  cell, 
and,  as  Prof.  Schleiden  remarks,  "  the  self-subsistence  and 
of  reproduction  of  the  qell  js  the  foundation  of 
From  this  power,~"under 


favorable  conditions,  can  each  individual  cell  or  group 


36  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

form  new  cells  and  buds,  which  may  or  may  not,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  become  a  new  plant.  Botanists 
have  been  inclined  to  pass  over  the  adventitious  bud  as 
a  thing  rarely  occurring,  and  then  merely  a  chance  pro- 
duction, consequently  not  of  sufficient  moment  to  call 
for  any  special  attention,  but  to  the  propagator  of  plants 
it  has  become  of  great  importance  ^wherever  and  when- 
ever it  can  be  made  available  in  the  multiplication  of 
valuable  species  and  varieties. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
ROOTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS. 

In  many  of  the  simple  plants  no  organs  corresponding 
to  the  true  roots  of  the  higher  orders  are  produced,  the 
nutrient  elements  being  absorbed  directly  through  all 
parts  of  the  plant  alike.  At  what  point  in  the  ascending 
scale  the  true  roots  first  appear  has  not  been  fully  deter- 
mined, but  these  organs  most  probably  follow,  or  are  co- 
existent with,  the  inception  of  a  division  of  cells  into 
groups,  each  possessing  special  functions,  as  found  in  all 
compound  plants. 

As  soon  as  a  plant  has  advanced  upward  in  the  scale, 
and  reached  a  plane  where  different  organs  are  evolved 
with  distinct  and  special  functions,  roots  become  neces- 
sary to  its  existence,  and  are  consequently  among  the 
first  of  a  multiplicity  of  organs  to  appear.  It  is  true,  if 
we  consult  the  writings  of  our  most  eminent  vegetable 
physiologists,  we  find  that  they  do  not  agree  as  to  what 
part  or  how  much  of  certain  plants  should  be  designated 
as  roots.  In  the  funguses,  such  as  mold  and  mildew,  as 
well  as  in  the  larger  mushrooms,  the  filmy  threads  called 
mycelium  answer  the  purpose  of  true  roots,  producing 


ROOTS   AND  THEIK   FUNCTIONS.  37 

a  form  of  bud  from  which  spring  up,  in  some  instances, 
stout  stems,  bearing  a  cap  containing  fruit-like  organs ; 
while  in  others  there  is  only  a  very  minute  ascending 
axis. 

While  authors  differ  very  widely  in  their  opinions  as 
to  what  part  of  certain  plants  should  be  considered  as 
roots,  and  what  should  not,  nearly  all  agree  that  what- 
ever is  developed  ^ejw^the^cotyledons,  figure  13,  .ojrjirst 
pair  of  seed-leaves,  in  dicotyledonous  plants,  should  at 
first  be  considered  as  the  root,  or  descend- 
ing axis  ;  but  this  part  soon  undergoes  a 
change,  or  outgrows  its  normal  functions, 
and  becomes  merely  an  extension  of  the 
true  stem  or  ascending  axis.  The  embryo 
root,  no  doubt,  when  it  first  pushes  out 
from  the  seed,  absorbs  nutriment  from  the 
elements  with  which  it  is  surrounded,  just 
as  the  smaller  rootlets  do  later  in  the  life 
of  the  plant ;  but  when  this  main  or  cen- 
tral root  ceases  to  absorb  nutrients  it  would 
be  difficult  to  determine.  The  stem  or 
ascending  axis,  and  the  two  cotyledons 
(seed-leaves),  with  a  central  terminal  bud 
or  leaf  (plumule)  is  that  part  of  the  plant 
which  seeks  the  light  and  air  ;  while  the  ING  COTYLEDONS. 
part  growing  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  downward,  is 
the  root  or  descending  axis  or  radix.  In  many  of  the 
monocotyledonous  plants  (one  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf),  like 
the  Grasses,  Asparagus,  Yuccas,  Palms,  etc.,  there  are  a 
number  of  roots,  or  a  multiplication  or  division  of  the 
radix  from  the  first,  and,  in  some  instances  this  emission 
of  what  may  be  properly  called  adventitious  roots  appears 
to  be  the  normal  habit. 

But  these  rather  anomalous  characters  need  not  sur- 
prise the  propagator  of  plants  if  he  will  keep  in  mind 
that  variation  is  a  rule  of  nature  ;  and  while  there  is  suf- 


38  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

ficient  uniformity  in  the,  laws  governing  the  growth  of 
vegetation  to  enable  us  to  discover  what  we  may  term 
general  principles,  yet  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  determine 
with  certainty  the  exact  limits  of  variation. 

In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  roots  growing  in 
the  ground  have  a  tendency  to  go  downward,  or  toward 
the  center  of  the  earth.  Prof.  Gray  says  that  the  plant- 
let  possesses  a  kind  of  polarity,  and  is  composed  of  coun- 
terpart systems — namely,  a  descending  axis,  or  root,  and 
an  ascending  axis,  or  stem.  Prof.  Balfour,  in  referring 
to  this  subject,  says  :  "  Physiologists  have  not  been  able 
to  detect  any  law  to  which  they  can  refer  the  phenomena, 
although  certain  agencies  are  obviously  concerned  in  the 
effect.  Some  have  said  that  the  root  is  especially  influ- 
enced by  the  attraction  of  the  earth,  while  the  stem  is 
influenced  by  ligfht."  But  experiments  have  shown  that 
the  downward  coarse  of  the  root  is  not  always  due  to  the 
attraction  of  gravitation,  or  to  moisture  in  the  soil ;  nei- 
ther is  the  ascent  of  the  stem  due  to  the  action  of  light, 
although  all  these,  no  doubt,  have  an  influence  upon  the 
plantlet  in  its  early  stages  of  growth.  Thomas  Andrew 
Knight  placed  mustard  seeds  and  French  beans  on  the 
circumference  of  two  wheels  which  were  put  in  rapid 
I  ^  motion,  the  one  horizontal  and  the  other  in  a  vertical 

.  manner,  and  he  found  that  in  the  former  the  roots  took 
•   a  direction  intermediate  between  that  impressed  by  gravi- 

'tation  and  by  the  centrifugal  force — namely,  downward 
and  outward,  while  the  stems  were  inclined  upward  and 
inward.  In  the  latter  the  force  of  gravitation  was  neutral- 
ized by  the  constant  change  of  position  ;  the  centrifugal 
force  acted  alone,  by  which  the  roots  were  directed  out- 
ward at  the  same  time  that  the  stems  grew  inward.  But 
these  variations  may  have  all  been  due  to  the  liquid  con- 
dition of  the  parts  of  the  young  plants.  Some  plants 
grow  indifferently  in  all  directions  from  the  very  incep- 
tion of  germination,  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  roots 


ROOTS   AKD   THEIR  FUNCTIONS.  39 

of  parasites  point  toward  the  center  of  their  host.  While 
the  first  root  of  the  plantlet  growing  in  the  earth,  and  in 
a  position  free  to  act,  generally  goes  downward,  the  sec- 
ondary or  adventitious  roots  have  a  tendency  to  wander 
in  search  of  food,  not  only  pushing  out  at  right  angles 
from  the  central  descending  axis,  but  often  climb  up 
banks  at  a  very  acute  angle.  There  is  co  doubt  about 
the  uniformity  of  action  in  first  roots  of  plants,  but  those 
produced  later  are  controlled  by  varying  conditions  and 
circumstances.  *) 

The  sensitiveness  of  the  root  is  mainly  in  its  pdtat,  J"  •  . 
and  it  is  through  the  £ounge.r  parts  that  the  nutrient 
properties  are  mostly  absofbecl  from  the  medium  in  which 
they  live.  Old  or  large  roots  cannot  take  up  moisture  or 
the  elements  of  nutrition  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the 
stem  and  its  appendages  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  weserv;- 
ing  the  small  libers  from  injury  in  transplanting,  ^LS^ell 
as  placing  the  principal  roots  in  a  position  where  new 
rootlets  will  bo  produced  in  time  to  respond  to  a  call 
upon  them  for  nutriment  by  the  leaves. 

The  most  natural  position  for  roots  is  at  the  base  of 
the  stem,  whatever  form  the  latter  may  assume,  whether 
it  be  that  of  a  tree,  shrub,  vine,  herb,  bulb,  tuber,  epi- 
phyte, or  even  a  parasite,  which  pierces  with  its  roots  the 
tissues  of  its  host  for  nutriment.  But  as  all  .roots,  are 
produced  by  the  multiplication  of  cells  within  restricted 
limits,  they  may,  like  the  adventitious  bud,  appear,  under 
favorable  conditions,  upon  vall  parts  of  the  same  pi  tint — 
on  the  stem,  leaves,  buds,  or  other  appendages.  Roots 
have  no  more  fixedness  of  character  than  branches,  for 
they  may  in  many  instances  be  changed  into  stems  or 
branches,  and  there  are  soone  kiadsjpf  Jbreps,  like  the  Wil- 
lows and  Poplars,  t^at  may  be  completely  inverted,  the 
roots  becoming. branches  and  the  branches  roots.  The 
same  is  true  of  many  other  kinds  of  plants  to  which  I 
shall  have  occasion  to  refer  hereafter. 


40  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Roots,  like  stems  and  brandies,  lengthen  at  their  points 
only,  and  while  the  absorption  of  moisture  and  nutriment 
is  principally  through  the  newly-formed  cells  near  the 
ends  of  the  rootlets,  still  they  continue  to  take  in.  liquids 
.through  all.  parts  until  they  have  become  hardened  and 
enclosed  in  a  cortical  layer  of  cells.  It  is  no  doubt  true, 
as  Mr.  Darwin  claims,  that  sensitiveness  to  moisture 
resides  specially  in  the  tip  of  the  root,  but  it  can  readily 
be  shown  that  the  absorbing  property  is  not  wholly  con- 
fined to  this  point,  by  removing  the  tip  of  the  rootlet. 
The  absorbing  powers  of  the  young,  fibers  must  be  far 
greater  than  could  possibly  exist  nTthe  extreme  point,  in 
order  to  supply  the  loss  of  moisture  through  rapid  evapo- 
ration from  the  leaves  and  young  twigs  of  many  kinds  of 
herbs  and  trees  during  dry  and  hot  weather.  But  at 
what  age  or  period  of  growth  the  rootlet  loses  its 
power  of  .absorbing  nutrients  has  not  been  determined, 
but  it  is  probably  variable  in  different  kinds  of  plants, 
The  epiphytes,  and  especially  the  larger  species  of  Or- 
chids, with  coarse,  fleshy,  aerial  roots,  retain  the  power 
of  absorbing  liquids  through  their  side  cells  for  a  much 
longer  period  than  those  of  plants  growing  in  the  earth, 
having  roots  so  minute  that  they  can  readily  pass  between 
small  particles  of  soil  while  seeking  sustenance.  They 
not  only  add  new  cells  to. their  points,  but  the  cells  in 
the  rear  are  continually  throwing  off  new  branches,  there- 
by enabling  the  plant  to  occupy  and  gather  food  from 
new  sources. 

The  cause  of  this  rapid  formation  and  multiplication 
of  absorbing. points  on  many  of  the  most  vigorous  peren- 
nial plants  is  unknown,  for  they  are  evidently  wholly 
adventitious,  not  originating  from  buds  like  the  natural 
branches  on  the  stems  of  plants  ;  and,  furthermora,  the 
larger  proportion  of  these  minute  roots  are  deciduous, 
and  only  serve  a  tompor^ry  purpose,  lining  but  for  a 
year  or  two ;  a  few  of  the  stronger  remaining  perma- 


BOOTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS.  41 

nently,  the  ojtliers  dropping  off  when  no.  longer  of  service 
to  the  plant.  The  number  and  ramifications  of  roots  are 
naturally  quite  variable  in  different  kinds  of  plants,  as 
well  as  in  the  same  species  growing  under  different  con- 
ditions, and  the  cultivator  frequently  takes  advantage  of 
these  variations  in  many  of  the  operations  which  he  is 
called  upon  to  perform. 

The  principal  office  of  roots  is  to  collect  nutrients  from 
the  medium  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  furnishing  a 
vehicle  for  conveying  the  materials  collected  to  other 
parts  of  the  plant.  But  in  many  instances  the  roots  also 
act  as  a  support  and  for  securing  the  plant  in  a  perma- 
nent place  or  position.  This  function  of  localization, 
however,  is  not  general  throughout  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, but  belongs  to  certain  groups  or  families,  and  even 
with  these  it  is  only  operative  during  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual plant.  Collectively,  all  plants  may  be  said  to 
travel  or  change  places  with  each  successive  generation, 
and  there  is  a  vast  number  which  are  not  confined  to  one 
spot  for  any  considerable  period  during  their  lives,  but 
they  are  continually  moving  from  place  to  place,  as  seen 
in  many  aquatic  plants  floating  in  ponds,  rivers  and 
bays  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  There  are  also  many 
parasitic  plants,  like  the  common  Dodders  (Cuscuta), 
which  at  first  spring  up  from  seed  buried  in  the  earth  ; 
but  the  plant  soon  breaks  loose  from  the  parent  root, 
then  moving  onward  over  its  host,  from  which  it  obtains 
nutriment,  the  older  parts  of  the  stem  dying  and  drop- 
ping off  as  the  younger  parts  advance.  Such  plants  may 
be  said  to  travel  in  search  of  victims,  leaving  only  their 
seeds  scattered  along  the  way,  while  other  plants,  like 
the  common  Black-cap  Raspberry  and  Trailing  Black- 
berry, leave  one  of  their  kind  at  each  place  occupied. 
The  old  plant  sends  out  a  long  slender  shoot,  several  feet 
or  yards  in  length,  and  from  the  very  tip  of  this,  new 
roots  are  emitted,  and  in  this  way  a  new  plant  is  estab- 


42  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

listed  far  away  from  the  parent  stock.  While  such  plants 
do  not  migrate,  or  move  about  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
floating  aquatic  herbs,  still  each  successive  generation 
seeks  a  new  abiding  place,  at  a  greater  or  less  distance 
from  the  homes  of  their  immediate  progenitors. 

Wherever  a  plant  becomes  established,  the  roots  gather 
nutriment  from  the  medium  in  which  they  are  placed, 
and  of  such  nature  as  is  required  to  build  up  the  struc- 
ture. These  nutrients  are  absorbed  or  taken  in  through 
the  surface  of  the  roots,  and  as  all  must  pass  through 
the  minute  cells,  it  is  quite  evident  that  they  can  only  be 
utilized  when  in  a  liquid  or  gaseous  condition  ;  nothing 
of  a  solid  nature  can  be  appropriated  for  use  by  the  plant. 
Everything  found  in  a  mature  plant  must  have  originally 
entered  the  root  or  other  parts  as  a  liquid  or  gas,  and 
then  changed,  by  some  chemical  or  other  agency,  into 
whatever  form  it  afterward  assumes. 

"Whether  roots  possess  an  inherent  power  of  selecting 
their  food,  or  not,  is  still  a  mooted  question  among  veg- 
etable physiologists.  Some  are  quite  positive  that  they 
do  possess  this  power  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  while 
others  are  just  as  certain  that  they  do  not,  and  that  all 
matter  presented  to  them  in  a  liquid  or  gaseous  form  is 
alike  absorbed  ;  hence  the  frequent  cause  of  death  among 
plants  through  the  absorption  of  poisons.  Dr.  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  in  his  "  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Botany," 
in  referring  to  this  subject,  says  :  "that  they  appear  to 
have  a  certain  .power,  of  selection  ;  some  of  the  substances 
dissolved  in  the  fluids  which  surround  the  roots  being 
ab^orbe^a,n<gLothers  rejected.  Thus,  if  a  grain  of  wheat 
and  a  pea  be  grown  in  the  same  soil,  the  former  will  ob- 
tain for  itself  all  the  silex  or  flinty  matter  which  the 
water  of  the  soil  can  dissolve  ;  and  it  is  the  deposition  of 
this  in  the  stem  which  gives  to  all  the  grasses  so  much 
firmness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pea  will  reject  this, 


BOOTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS.  43 

and  will  take  up  whatever  calcareous  substances  (lime 
and  its  compounds)  the  water  of  the  soil  contains." 

Prof.  J.  H.  Balfour,  in  his  "Manual  of  Botany,"  says  : 
"  Gaseous  matters  are  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants 
and  circulated  along  with  the  sap,  as  well  as  in  the  spiral 
vessels.  These  usually  consist  of  common  air,  carbonic 
acid,  and  oxygen."  And  further,  he  thinks  that  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  absorption  of  solutions  depend  on  the 
"  relative  densities  alone,  and  not  on  any  peculiar  extract- 
ing power  of  the  roots,  for  it  is  well  known  that  poison- 
QUS  matters  are  absorbed  as  well  as  those  that  are  whole- 
some." On  the  contrary,  another  English  authority,  Dr. 
Maxwell  T.  Masters,  in  his  recent  work,  "Plant  Life," 
gays  :  "  It  is  a  moot  point  whether  any  carbon  is  taken 
up  by  the  roots,  but  if  any,  it  is  only  a  small  proportion." 
But  Dr.  J.  M.  Schleiden  ("Principles  of  Scientific  Bot- 
any " ),  in  referring  to  this  same  mooted  point,  says  : 
"The  most  universally  distributed  medium  of  solution 
in  nature — water — is  also  the  fluid  which  is  absorbed  by 
the  plant  cell,  and  conveys  all  other  matters  into  its  in- 
terior. The  most  essential  of  these  matters  are  carbonic 
acid  and  ammonia,  both  of  which  are  contained  in  water 
which  either  falls  from  the  air  or  has  been  a  long  time  in 
contact  with  it.  W^btjgr,  carb^cQic^acid^and  ammonia 
contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  all  of 
which  are  essential  to  jthe  formation  of  the  assimilated 
substances,  and  to  the  especial  nourishment  of  the  cell. 
But  waiter  occasiolTally  cony^^to^the^cell,  in  smaTTquan- 
tities,  all  substances  which  are  capable  of  solution  in 


Of  the  many  other  works  of  equally  celebrated  author- 
ities  examined  on  this  point,  no  two  fully  agree  in  their 
"opinions,"  for  we  can  scarcely  bestow  upon  the  infor- 
mation derived  from  such  sources  so  dignified  a  name 
as  "knowledge."  But  we  may  safely  credit  roots  with 
the  faculty  of  modifying  and  changing  certain  elements 


44  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

in  their  passage  through  the  cells,  and  the  chemical, 
mechanical  and  vital  forces  are  all  engaged  in  this  work. 
There  is  a  thorough  filtering  of  the  solutions  as  absorbed, 
else  the  crude  sap  or  liquid  would  often  remain  colored 
as  it  passes  upward  ;  but  this  seldom  occurs,  even  when 
the  roots  are  submerged  in  highly  colored,  and  what  are 
generally  considered,  very  nutritious  fluids,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  drainings  of  a  manure  heap,  and  from  other 
similar  vegetable  matter.  Still,  roots  do  sometimes  ab- 
sorb vegetable  dyes,  as  has  been  shown  in  various  experi- 
ments with  extract  of  Madder  and  the  juices  of  the  Poke- 
berry,  but  in  no  instance  on  record  has  the  coloring 
matter  produced  any  permanent  effect  on  the  plant  or 
become  hereditary,  and  it  is  seldom  that  the  added  color 
can  be  traced  upward  in  the  cells  to  any  considerable 
distance  ;  showing  that  the  liquid  as  filtered  through 
the  cell-walls,  as  it  passes  from  one  to  another,  soon 
parts  with  any  uncongenial  foreign  materials  which  may 
be  present ;  at  least  the  attempt  is  made  to  do  this,  and 
in  case  of  failure,  as  with  poisonous  gases,  the  plant  is 
killed.  While  the  living  cells  may  reject  coloring  matter 
and  fail  to  retain  it,  the  dead  tissues  of  plants  are  readily 
colored  by  absorption — a  purely  mechanical  operation — as 
constantly  practised  by  the  manufacturer  of  microscopic 
slides,  the  stainers  of  wood,  and  dyers  of.  vegetable  fab- 
rics in  general. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  whatever  is  absorbed  by  the 
roots  is  subjected  to  unceasing  changes  and  transforma- 
tions, the  result  of  the  action  of  chemical  and  vital  forces 
about  which  there  is  yet  much  to  be  learned. 

Roots  that  grow  in  the  dark  possess  somewhat  different 
functions  from  those  growing  in  the  light ;  at  least  the 
chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  them  are  different. 
We  know  that  roots  differ  very  widely,  not  only  in  their 
forms  and  structure,  but  in  their  habits  as  well.  Some 
appear  to  require  resistance,  like  those  of  trees  which 


BOOTS  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS. 

thrive  best  in  heavy,  compact  clay  or  loamy  soils  ;  others 
flourish  in  loose  sands  and  peat-bogs ;  while  still  other 
kinds  grow  only  in  water,  or  wholly  exposed  to  the  air, 
as  seen  in  some  of  the  epiphytes. 

The  food  of  plants  consists  principally  of  a  few  simple 
elements,  viz.,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen. 
These  are  indispensable  nutrients,  out  of  which  all  com- 
bustible parts  of  the  plant  are  formed  by  the  chemical 
and  vital  processes  of  nutrition.  It  is  true  that  other 
substances  are  usually  found  in  plants,  such  as  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesia,  iron,  phosphorus,  silicon,  sodium,  and 
various  other  elements,  but  just  what  position  they  hold 
in  vegetable  economy  has  not  been  fully  determined. 
There  are  also  elements  which  may  be  essential  to  some 
kinds  (like  iodine  in  marine  plants)  that  are  of  no  value 
to  others. 

Oxygen  is  a  very  important  element  of  plants,  for  every 
nine  pounds  of  water  contains  eight  of  oxygen,  and  it  is 
always  present  in  organic  compounds.  Plants  take  up 
oxygen,  chiefly  in  its  combination  with  hydrogen,  in  the 
form  of  water,  and  we  all  know  how  important  moisture 
is  to  vegetation  in  general,  as  it  is  the  vehicle  which  con- 
veys to  plants  the  great  bulk  of  their  food.  Oxygen  com- 
bines with  various  other  elements  to  form  the  solid  rocks 
of  the  globe,,  as  well  as  the  bodies  of  animals. 

.  Hydrogen  is  an  invisible  element  of  plants  and  the 
lightest  of  all  known  substances.  It  is  not  found  free  in 
nature,  but  combined  with  oxygen  in  water,  and  it  is  in 
this  state  of  combination  that  it  is  taken  up  and  utilized 
by  plants.  As  water  is  composed  of  eight  parts  (by 
weight)  of  cxygen  and  one  of  hydrogen,  the  latter  may 
be  considered  as  always  present  where  there  is  moisture, 
and  without  this  compound  all  plants  soon  perish.  Hy- 
drogen is  always  present  in  all  organic  compounds,  but 
it  is  not  supposed  to  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 


46  PROPAGATION  OE  PLANTS. 

mineral  masses  of  the  globe,  but  it  is  present  in  the  air 
in  combination  with  nitrogen. 

Carbon  is  a  constituent  of  every  organic  compound, 
and  even  the  lowest  order  of  plants,  that  consist  only  of  a 
single  cell,  is  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  decomposing 
and  utilizing  carbonic  acid.  On  an  average,  forty  to 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  plants,  v^hcn  perfectly 
dry,  is  carbon,  and  in  some  trees  and  shrubs  the  percent- 
age is  still  greater,  as  shown  when  burned  for  charcoal. 
From  whence  all  this  carbon  is  derived  is  as  far  from 
being  a  settled  question  among  vegetable  physiologists  as 
is  that  of  how  it  finds  an  entrance  to  the  cells  of  plants, 
referred  to  on  a  preceding  page.  Some  authors  assert 
that  it  is  all  derived  from  the  atmosphere  through  the 
leaves,  while  other^  are  just  as  positive  that  it  is  taken 
up  by  the  roots  and  then  decomposed,  combined,  or  re- 
organized in  the  cells.  Prof.  C.  H.  Goessmann,  in  "  Man- 
ual of  Agriculture,"  1885,  says  :  "that  both  carbonic  acid 
and  ammonia  are  always  found  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
are  taken  in  by  the  leaves  or  dissolved  by  the  rain  falling 
through  the  air  and  carried  into  the  earth,  where  they  are 
absorbed  by  the  roots."  Prof.  Moll,  an  eminent  German 
authority,  so  late  as  1878,  claims  that  "  roots  take  no 
part  in  supplying  the  plant  with  carbon  dioxide,"  while 
Prof.  Julius  Sachs,  in  his  voluminous  work  "Text-book 
of  Botany,"  says  "that  it  is  only  the  cells  which  contain 
chlorophyll — and  these  under  the  influence  of  sunlight — 
that  have  the  power  of  decomposing  the  carbon  dioxide 
taken  up  by  them,  and  at  the  same  time  setting  free  an 
equal  volume  of  oxygen  in  order  to  produce  organic  com- 
pounds out  of  the  elements  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  assimilate."  The  theories  advanced 
by  Prof.  Moll  and  Sachs  are  also  held  by  many  other 
equally  eminent  botanists  of  the  present  day,  while  many 
of  our  most  learned  and  celebrated  chemists,  like  Prof. 
Goessmann,  dissent,  offering  equally  as  good  reasons,  with 


BOOTS   AND   THEIR   FUNCTIONS.  47 

some  well-supported  facts,  for  rejecting  them.  It  is  cer- 
tainly consistent  with  the  almost  universal  observation  of 
practical  as  well  as  scientific  cultivators  of  plants,  that 
soil  containing  organic  or  vegetable  matter  is  far  more 
productive  than  that  from  which  it  is  wholly  absent.  It 
is  true  that  some  kinds  of  plants  will  grow  in  a  soil  con- 
taining no  perceptible  amount  of  vegetable  matter,  yet 
we  all  know  how  much  more  luxuriantly  plants  will  grow 
in  the  presence  of  an  abundance  of  decomposed  or  decom- 
posing carbonaceous  materials.  The  fact,  however, 
should  not  be  overlooked,  that  in  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter,  other  elements  are  set  free  in  addition 
to  carbonic  acid,  and  it  is  not  readily  determined  as  to 
which  one  among  the  number  contributes  most  to  the 
increased  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Every  intelligent  cultivator  of  plants  knows  that  as 
each  crop  is  taken  from  the  land,  its  fertility  i3  lessened, 
owing,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  loss  of  organic  matter  ;  but 
if  each  successive  crop  derived  its  entire  carbon  from  the 
air,  and  through  the  leaves  of  the  plants,  then  it  would 
never  be  necessary  to  add  anything  to  the  soil  likely  to 
yield  carbon  ;  consequently  tlje  theory  of  plants  deriving 
.all  their  carbon  from  the  dioxide  absorbed  by  the  leaves 
is  scarcely  reconcilable  with  what  appears  to  be  the  ordi- 
nary operations  usually  practised,  if  not  positively  neces- 
sary, in  the  cultivation  of  plants.  We  can  readily  under- 
stand, or  at  least  believe,  that  it  is  possible,  as  claimed, 
that  all  the  carbonaceous  matter  now  present  on  this 
earth  had  its  origin  in  the  atmosphere  ;  but  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  each  individual  plant,  or  crop, 
derives  all,  or  any  considerable  part,  of  its  carbon  from 
the  air. 

Nitrogen  is  another  element  of  plants,  about  the  origin 
and  way  in  wjiich  it  is  utilized  by  plants,  neither  vege- 
table physiologists  noj;  chemists  have  been  able  to  agree. 
While  some  contend  that  plants  cannot  assimilate  atmos- 


48  PROPAGATION   OF   PLAKTS. 

plieric  nitrogen,  others  have  proved,  to  their  own  satis- 
faction at  least,  that  they  do,  under  certain  conditions, 
obtain  considerable  quantities  from  this  source,  and 
Adolf  Mayer,  in  some  experiments  made  a  few  years  ago 
on  air-plants,  found  that  xujrogeny  in.ihe  form  of  Ammo- 
nia, was  absorbed  in  appreciable  amount  by  both  leaves 
and  roots,  but  most  freely  by  the  latter. 

Nitrogen  forms  nearly  four-fifths  in  bulk  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  is  also  abundant  in  all  animal  tissues,  which, 
during  decay,  give  off  nitrogen,  combined  with  hydrogen, 
in  the  form  of  ammonia.  The  latter  is  readily  absorbed 
by  moist  carbon  (charcoal),  and  by  carbonaceous  matter 
generally.  In  this  form,  plants  take  up  nitrogen  quite 
freely  through  their  roots  ;  consequently,  ammonia  is 
valued  highly  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  stimulat- 
ing of  fertilizers.  Nitrogen  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
under  certain  conditions  combine,  forming  nitric  acid, 
and  this,  in  combination  with  alkalies,  forms  nitrate  of 
soda,  of  potash,  and  of  lime,  all  of  which  are  useful  fer- 
tilizers for  plants.  The  guano  deposits  on  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  nitre  beds  of  South  America  and 
other  countries,  are  all  drawn  upon  by  civilized  nations 
for  providing  nitrogen  and  other  important  elements  re- 
quired by  cultivated  plants.  Not  only  is  nitrogen  sup- 
plied to  plants  by  the  application  of  nitrates  to  the  soil, 
but  in  various  other  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  ma- 
nures, as  produced  on  the  farm  and  in  the  garden,  and, 
in  addition,  it  is  being  constantly  deposited  in  the  soil 
wherever  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  undergoing  de- 
composition. 

These  four  elements — oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and 
nitrogen — are  generally  recognized  as  the  four  elementary 
constituents  of  plants,  supplied  principally  in  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia.  In  such  forms 
or  combinations  they  all  exist  in.  the  air  as  well  as  in  the 
.earth,  hence  the  means  of  subsistence  of  plants  that  live 


ROOTS   AND   THEIR  FUNCTIONS.  .        49 

suspended  in  the  air,  as  well  as  those  the  roots  of  which 
are  buried  in  the  soil. 

But  there  are  many  other  important  elements  and 
combinations,  about  which  so  little  is  known  in  regard 
to  their  origin  or  action  in  the  building  of  vegetable 
structures  that  the  most  I  need  say  about  them  is,  that 
they  are  important  materials  and  should  be  supplied 
whenever  and  wherever  required.  Among  these  are  Sul- 
phur, which  is  found  most  abundant  in  plants  yielding 
what  are  termed  albuminoids.  It  is  especially  abundant 
in  plants  of  the  Mustard  Family,  from  the  seeds  of  some 
plants  of  which  is  expressed  a  valuable  oil.  It  is  also 
abundant  in  Peas,  Beans,  Clover,  and  other  seeds  of  leg- 
umes. Sulphur  is  found  in  the  form  of  sulphuric  acid 
combined  as  calcium  sulphate  or  sulphate  of  lime,  also 
known  as  gypsum  and  plaster.  Plants  take  up  sulphur 
in  the  form  of  soluble  salts  of  sulphuric  acid,  but  exactly 
how  these  are  utilized  by  them  is  not  definitely  known, 
and  it  is  perhaps  for  this  reason  that  the  use  of  gypsum 
as  a  fertilizer  for  plants  has  so  long  remained  a  bone  of 
contention  among  agriculturists.  Sometimes  the  results 
obtained  from  an  application  of  this  material  are  seen  in 
a  marked  improvement  in  the  growth  of  the  plants,  jbut 
in  other  instances  it  has  no  apparent  effect,  and  this,  too, 
on  the  same  kinds  of  plants,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  deter- 
mined, on  the  same  kind  of  soil. 

Iron  js  an  indispensable  element  of  all  plants  contain- 
ing chlorophyll — i.  e.,  with  green  colored  parts  or  organs. 
It  is,  however,  required  in  such  small  quantities  that  it 
is  readily  obtained  from  the  soil  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Too  much  iron  in  the  soil  is  injurious  to  plants,  espec- 
ially when  in  solutions  that  are  readily  absorbed  and 
distributed  through  the  cells. 

Lime  is  an  essential  constituent  of  the  ashes  of  plants, 
and  it  is  taken  up  as  a  sulphate  of  lime  in  such  plants  as 
the  Clovers,  while  in  others,  like  Wheat,  Rye,  Oats,  and 


50  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

similar  cereals,  a,s  phosphate  of  lime  (a  compound  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime),  and  it  is  from  such  seed  or  grain 
that  the  phosphorus  found  in  the  bones  of  animals  is 
produced,  and  without  which  this  could  not  be  formed. 
Sulphates  and  phosphates  are  necessary  to  supply  a  part 
of  the  material  forming  the  protein  compounds  found  in 
grain. 

Silica  is  a  component  part  of  a  large  number  of  plants, 
and  it  is  a  combination  of  oxygen  with  a  metal-like  ele- 
ment called  Silicon.  Common  flint  and  the  quartz  rocks 
are  composed  mainly  of  silica,  and  the  transparent  crys- 
tals of  quartz,  used  for  making  what  are  called  "pebble" 
glasses  in  spectacles  and  similar  purposes,  are  merely  a 
purer  form  of  the  same  material.  §ilica,  or  silicic  acid, 
is  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  plants  largely  dissolved  in 
water  as  silicates,  and  from  this  solution  it  is  deposited 
in  the  plant-cells,  and  in  widely  variable  quantities.  It 
is  found  in  great  abundance  in  trees,  shrubs,  and  other 
w_oody  plants,  also  in  the  bark  or  epidermis  of  the  larger 
grasses — Wheat,  Rye,  Oats,  Sorghum,  Indian  Corn,  Bam- 
boo, and  the  Tubular  Palms  ;  in  fact,  it  may  be  termed 
the  great  stiffening  material  of  plants.  In  the  Bamboo 
it  is  deposited  in  such  large  quantities  in  the  cavities  of 
the  stems  that  it  is  extensively  extracted  and  used  under 
the  name  of  tabasheer  by  the  Hindoos,  among  whom  it  is 
in  high  repute  as  a  tonic.  As  found  in  the  Bamboo  and 
some  of  the  other  large  grasses,  it  consists  chiefly  of 
silica  and  potash,  in  the  proportion  of  about  seventy 
parts  of  silica  and  thirty  of  potash.  In  some  kinds  of 
plants,  like  the  common  Scouring  Rush  (Equisetum), 
the  epidermis  is  almost  pure  silex,  and  the  ashes  of  the 
entire  plant  are  nearly  or  quite  one-half  composed  of  it. 
Grain  raised  on  land  deficient  in  silica  will  be  weak  in 
the  stem  and  easily  blown  down  when  the  grain  forms  in 
the  head  or  ear.  As  silica  is  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants, 
we  can  readily  understand  how  that  released  by  decom- 


STEMS  AND  THEIR  APPENDAGES.  51 

posing  vegetable  matter  will  yield  to  growing  crops  this 
material  in  a  readily  soluble  form. 

Soda  and  Potash  are  found  abundantly  in  all  of  the 
plants  belonging  to  the  higher  orders.  Those  growing 
near  the  seashore  usually  contain  a  larger  proportion  of 
soda  than  those  growing  inland,  while  the  latter  contain 
more  potash.  Common  potash  (carbonate  of  potassa)  is 
a  compound  of  carbonic  acid  and  potassium,  while  soda  is  a 
carbonate  of  sodium  ;  the  base  of  Jboth  being  metals  hav- 
ing a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen.  All  the  alkalies — soda, 
potash  and  ammonia,  and  especially  in  their  combinations 
with  acids — form  neutral  compounds  from  which  plants 
obtain  a  large  portion  of  their  mineral  parts. 

Oxide  of  Magnesium,  better  known  under  the  name  of 
Magnesia,  also  chlorine,  iodine-,  bromine,  alumina,  man- 
ganese, and  even  copper  in  minute  quantities,  exist  in 
plants,  but  the  more  important  of  these  are  found  natur- 
ally in  all  fertile  soils,  and  they  are  seldom  lacking  in 
the  infertile  or  barren  ones. 


CHAPTER    V. 
STEMS  AND  THEIR  APPENDAGES. 

There  are  a  vast  number  of  simple  plants  that  have 
no  true  stems,  but  are  composed  of  only  single  or  a 
multiplication  of  cells,  and  the  growth  of  which  con- 
sists merely  in  a  division  or  expansion  of  cellular  tissues. 
These  plants  do  not  possess  a  true  vascular  system,  al- 
though, in  many  instances,  they  assume  an  elongated 
form,  the  cell  uniting  or  expanding  into  a  single  fila- 
ment or  several  parallel  rows,  while  in  others  they  branch 
out  in  various  directions,  or  expand  into  membranes,  as 


52  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

% 

seen  in  the  common  lichens  growing  on  rocks  and  on  the 
old  bark  of  trees. 

In  the  most  familiar  acceptance  of  the  term  as  applied 
to  plants,  a  stem  is  that  part  bearing  leaves  and  flowers. 
The  ordinary  herbs  or  herbaceous  plants  do  not  produce 
perennial  woody  stems,  but  annual  flower  stalks  (caulis), 
which  may  or  may  not  bear  true  leaves  in  addition  to 
those  organs  generally  accompanying  the  flowers. 

The  stems  of  grasses  are  mostly  hollow,  jointed  tubes, 
living  only  a  sufficient  time  to  perfect  their  seed, 
whether  the  period  required  is  but  a  few  weeks,  as  with 
the  common  meadow  grasses,  or  several  years,  as  with 
the  great  Bamboo  of  Oriental  countries.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  however,  that  while  under  purely  natural 
conditions  the  stems  of  such  plants  invariably  perish 
with  the  ripening  of  their  seeds,  it  is  not  at  all  difficult 
to  prevent  either,  if  the  stems  are  required  for  other 
purposes,  which  is  often  the  case,  as,  for  instance,  the 
stalks  of  the  tropical  Sugar  Vtme(Saccharum  officinarum). 
This  plant  has  been  so  long  and  continuously  propagated 
by  cuttings  or  "  rattoons,"  that  it  no  longer  produces  seed 
under  the  artificial  conditions  to  which  it  is  subjected. 
The  Bamboos,  Eeeds,  and  many  other  kinds  of  grasses, 
may  be  readily  propagated  in  the  same  way,  and  by  pre- 
venting the  production  of  seeds  they  can  be  perpetuated 
and  multiplied  almost  without  limit,  even  when  no  seeds 
are  produced.  In  the  true  Palms  (Palmce),  the  stems 
are  perennial,  and  often  attain  to  a  very  large  size,  liv- 
ing to  a  great  age  and  fruiting  almost  constantly. 

Among  the  Ferns  (Filices),  we  find  some  with  distinct 
fruiting  stalks,  the  seed-like  organs  being  produced  on 
leafless,  sporiferous  stems,  springing  direct  from  the 
crowns  of  the  roots,  while  in  others  the  sporangia  are 
found  on  the  fronds  only.  Plants  producing  distinct 
stems  are  termed  caulescent,  while  those  in  which  the 
stQm  is  inconspicuous  are  acaulescent — i.  e.t  without  a 


STEMS    AND   THEIR   APPENDAGES.  53 

stem.  Botanists  separate  flowering  plants  into  two  great 
divisions — the  Endogens  and  the  Mpogens,  or  "inside 
growers  "and  "  outside  growers."  As  these  terms  have 
a  special  reference  to  the  growth  and  structure  of  the 
stems  of  plants,  it  is  proper  that  they  should  be  ex- 
plained here ;  although  the  differences  between  the 
plants  of  the  two  divisions  are  usually  distinguishable  in 
the  seed  as  well.  Endogenous  stems  are  not  made  up  of 
concentric  rings  or  annual  layers  of  deposited  matter,  as 
seen  in  the  woody  stems  of  nearly  all  exogens  or  outside 
growers.  Ill  the  formation  of  the  woody  tissues  of  en^ 
duuL-iLS  the  new  material  deposited  appears  to  be  inter- 
mmgied.  with  the  old,  and  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
stems  is  principally  through  distention  or  pressing  out- 
ward, and  not  by  the  deposition  of  matter  in  the  form  of 
layers,  such  stems  consisting  of  bundles  of  fibers  inter- 
mingled with  or  imbedded  in  cellular  tissues.  Neither 
do  such  stems  show  the  marked  distinction  between  the 
pith,  wood  and  bark,  as  seen  in  those  of  exogens.  The 
galms,  Ferns,  Yuccas,  Bamboo,  Sorghum  and  all  of  our 
cereal  grasses  belong  to  this  division  of  true  inside,  grow- 
ers. Their  seeds  are  also  distinguished  by  having  only 
one  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf,  hence  are  called  .rnonocoty- 
ledonous  plants,  the  plumule  pushing  upward  from  the 
seed  in  a  columnar  form,  as  seen  in  the  Asparagus,  In- 
dian Corn,  or  the  giant  Palms  of  the  tropics.  In  the 
leaves  of  these  plants  we  also  find  that  the,  veins  run 
mostly  parallel  with  the  length — that  is,  extend  from 
base  to  point  and  not  branched. 

The  exogenous  stem  has  at  first  three  distinct  parts, 
viz.,  the  pith,  wood  and  bark,  all  readily  separable.  As 
the  stem  increases  in  size  through  the  deposition  of  new 
matter  in  concentric  layers  of  bundles  of  .wood-cells, 
the  pith  is  often  compressed  or  entirely  obliterated  with- 
out in  any  manner  interfering  with  the  growth  of  the 
plant,  for  the  principal  office  of  the  pith  is  to  facilitate 


54  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

the  rapid  transmission  of-  fluids  through  the  succulent 
stems  of  herbaceous  plants  and  the  young  plantlets,  and 
twigs  of  shrubs  and  trees.  The  solidity  of  the  stems  of 
the  trees  diminishes  from  Jthe.cenfer  to  circumference  as 
they  increase  in  size,  or  just  the  apposite  of  what  takes 
place  in  endogenous  stems,  the  inner  portions,  in  time, 
ceasing  to  take  any  active  part  in  the  movement  of  the 
outer  layers,  and  the  heart-wood  may  decay,  as  seen  in 
thousands  of  instances  in  almost  every  old  forest,  or  be 
forcibly  removed  without  severely  checking  the  growth' 
of  the  younger  parts  of  the  tree.  But  so  long  as  the 
center  of  the  stem  remains  entire,  there  is  a  slight  com- 
munication between  the  outer  and  adjacent  parts  through 
what  are  called  the  medullary  rays,  which  are  composed 
of  cells  spread  out  into  a  fnrn  membranous  structure. 
These  rays  are  quite  abundant  and  conspicuous  in  the 
wood  of  the  Beech,  Maple,  Oak  and  many  other  kinds  of 
trees.  Through  these  rays  the  inner  parts  of  the  stem 
are  supposedto_be  su^5liedjvj,th  sufficient  moisture  to 
prevent  complete  exsiccation"  of  the  wood. 

Folio wjjog  in  the  same  direction,  from  Uie  pith  outward 
through  th^jn^ir^woad,  w^e  next  reach  a  later  forma- 
tion composed  of  a  few  or  many  concentric  layers  which, 
as  a  whole,  are  called  albunious  wood,  or  alburnum,  from 
the  Latin  albus,  white,  bqcausa  kjjng&t  trees  and  shrubs 
this  recently  formed  wood  is  of  a  whitish  color,  or  at 
least  lighter  in  color  than  the  duramen  or  heart  wood, 
and  the  cells  of  which  this  alburnum  is  composed  are 
capaJ^Je^oTtrarisLmitting  living,  ^ofganizable  matter.  The 
cells  of  the  inner  layers  of  alburnum  are,  however,  less 
active^  than  those  of  the  outer,  and  the  propagator  of 
plants  by  division,  finds  the  latest  formed  wood  responds 
most  readily  to  his  wishes  in  the  various  operations  to 
which  it  is  subjected^  |]p.circlmg  the.  alburnum  we 
find  a  layjer  of  soft  organizable  mattefwhich  has  received 
the  name  of  eambium,  which  is  quite  abundant  in  some 


STEMS   AND   THEIR   APPENDAGES.  55 

plants  just  before  and  at  the  time  they  commence  their 
growth  insuring.  It  is  of  a  mucilaginous  natuje,  and 
filled  withcells  that  are  actively  assumirig"~their  more 
regular  and  solidified  form,  as 
found  in  the  completed  or  ma- 
ture wood. 

Qutside  and  resting  upon  the 
cambium  layer,  or  partly  im- 
mersed, as  it  were,  in  it,  we  find 
the  Uber^  or  inner  bark,  which 
in  some  kinds  of  trees,  like  the 
Beech,  is  of  a  granular  structure 
and  very  brittle,  while  in  others, 
like  the  Papaw,  Persimmon,  and 
Lindens,  it  is  cloth-like  and  filled 
with  strong,  tough  fibres.  Sur- 
rounding the  liber  we  find  the 
older  layers  of  bark  partaking 
somewhat  of  the  character  of 
the  liber,  but  generally  quite 
porous,  coarser,  and  of  a  more 
brittle  texture.  The  old  bark  of 
trees  often  breaks  up  into  deep 
furrows,  as  on  the  stems  of  the 
Chestnut  and  Elm,  or  cleaving 
off  in  thin  irregular  plates,  as 
from  the  Plane  or  Buttonwood 
tree,  while  in  some  it  peels  off  in 
in  the  form  of  annular  paper- 
like  rings,  as  in  the  Birch  and 
Cherry.  This  outer  bark  is 

merely  effete  or  dead  matter,  an     Fig.  14.— SEEDLING  OAK, 
excrescence  of  no  further  use  to  the  tree  than  to  cover 
and  protect  the  inner  bark  from  the  elements. 

The  Qxogens  are  also  called  dicotyledonous  plants,  "be- 
cause their  seeds  have  two  cotyledons,  or  seed-leaves,  as 


56 


PROPAGATION  OF   PLAXTS. 


has  been  explained  elsewhere,   but  may  be  referred  to 
again  for  the  purpose  of  noting  the  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  as  well  as  to  explain  more  fully  some  peculiarities 
of  stems  in  their  embryonic  stages. 
In  the  young  seedling  Oak,  shown  in  figure  14,  the 

two  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves 
are  attached  to  one  side  of 
the  stem  and  remain  partly 
enclosed  within  the  shell, 
this  being  the  usual  position 
in  which  they  are  found  on 
the  starting  plantlets,  for  they 
seldom  expand  sufficiently  to 
free  themselves  from  their 
horn-like  covering  ;  neither 
is  it  necessary,  for  the  secon- 
dary leaves  are  early  de- 
veloped, and  before  the  nu- 
triment stored  up  in  the  nut 
is  entirely  exhausted  in  pro- 
ducing the  plumule  and 
simple  root.  A  similar  re- 
stricted development  of  seed- 
leaves  occurs  in  nearly  all  of 
the  nut-like  seeds,  and  even 
in  the  seeds  of  many  herbs. 
The  common  garden  Pea 
is  a  familiar  example  of  a  di- 
cotyledonous seed,  the  seed- 
come  up,"  or  appear  above- 
ground  on  the  ascending  stem  ;  but  on  the  closely  allied 
garden  Bean  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  are  always  con- 
spicuous objects  on  the  young  plants.  This  is  also  true 
with  many  kinds  of  trees,  such  as  the  Pear,  Apple,  Plum 
and  G'herry  among  fruits,  and  the  Ash,  Elm  and  Maple 
among,  our  most  familiar  forest  trees ;  as  soon  as  the 


Fig.  15.— SEEDLING  MAPLE 

leaves  of  which  do  not 


.    STEMS   AXD   THEIR   APPENDAGES.  57 

second  and  third  pair  of  the  true  leaves  unfold,  the  seed- 
leaves  below  commence  to  dry  up,  as  shown  in  the  seed- 
ling Maple,  figure  15,  and  eventually  drop  off. 

The  position  as  well  as  the  movements  of  cotyledons 
in  seedlings  are  characters  worthy  of  careful  study  by 
cultivators  of  plants,  for  it  is  quite  important  to  know 
in  advance  of  sowing  seeds  whether  the  first  leaves  are 
to  "come  up,"  as  with  the  Bean,  or  remain  stationary 
below  the  surface,  as  with  the  Pea,  Wistaria,  Oak  and 
similar  seeds,  for  in  the  former  the  cotyledons  must 
break  through  the  soil  and  come  to  the  surface,  while  in 
the  latter  it  is  only  a  new  and  slender  stem  therefrom 
that  appears.  Different  conditions,  therefore,  are  re- 
quired for  different  growths,  for  the  large,  _fleshy_seed- 
leaves  of  some  kinds  of  plants  would  never  break  through 
a  compact  soil  or  crust  on  its  surface  that  might  not 
seriously  impede  the  progress  of  plants  with  cotyledons, 
which  remain  stationary  at  the  depth  at  which  they  are 
deposited. 

While  the  two  cotyledons  are  generally  recognized  as  a 
characteristic  of  plants  with  woody,  exogenous  stems, 
still  there  are  some  exceptions  ;  among  the  most  famil- 
iar of  these  are  the  conifers,  or  cone-bearing  trees,  for 
in  these  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  are  quite  variable 
in  number.  In  the  seedling  Arbor-vitae  (Thuya),  the 
usual  number  is  two,  but  in  the  Pines  they  range  from 
four  and  five  up  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  in  Sabine's  Pine 
(Pimis  SaMniana.)  The  seed-leaves  in  the  Pines  are 
produced  in  a  whorl,  as  shown  in  figure  16,  and  they 
always  push  their  way  up  above  the  surface,  if  not  pre- 
vented by  a  too  compact  soil.  The  true  leaves  of  the 
Pine  tree  grow  in  clusters,  or,  more  properly,  bundles, 
the  lower  ends  being  encased  in  a  kind  of  sheath. 

The  number  of  leaves  in  a  sheath  varies  in  different 
species  from  one  or  rarely  two,  in  the  One-leaved  Pine 
(Pinus  monophylla),  up  to  five  in  the  common  White 


58 


PROPAGATION    OF   PLANTS. 


Pine  (P.  Strobus),  figure  17.  The  cotyledons,  however, 
give  no  indications  of  the  number  or  arrangement  of  the 
true  leaves,  which  appear  later  on  the  plant,  for  in  the 
One-leaved  Pine  there  are  from  seven  to  ten  cotyledons, 
while  the  seeds  of  Sabine's  Pine  produce  fifteen  to  sixteen, 
and  later  the  true  leaves  are  arranged  with  only  three  in 
a  sheath  or  bundle. 
Another  dicotyledonous  character  is  wanting  in  the 

leaves   of   a    large 

majority  of  the  coni- 
fers, and  that  is  the 

branching  veins,  for, 

with  only  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, their  leaves 

are  long,  slender  and 

with^  parallel  veins ; 

consequently,  in 

seeking  characters  to 

aid  us  in  separating 

the     dicotyledonous 

from  the  monoeoty- 

ledonous  plants,  we 

must  not  expect  to 

find  all  equally  well 

developed,    or    even 

always  foremost  in  any  one  genus  or 
family.  For  instance,  the  common  garden 
Pea  has  two  distinct  and  readily  separated  Fi?  17..  LEAVES 
cotyledons  and  its  leaves  have  branching  °*  WBITE  PINE- 
or  netted  veins,  but  the  stalk  shows  no/Qutside  growth, 
this  character  being  confined  wholly  to  stems  that  live 
more  than  one  seajson,  and  it  is  never  developed  until 
the  second  year.  The  Wistaria  vine  is  closely  related  to 
the  Pea,  but  the  stem  being  perennial,  new  layers  of  wood 
are  annually  added  to  the  outside ;  consequently,  it  has  a 
true  exogenous  stem. 


Fiff.  16. 

SEEDLING    PINE. 


STEMS    AND   THEIR    APPENDAGES.  59 

The  apj3end^gefi_of_§iems  are  exceedingly  numerous 
and  of  diversified  form  and  structure,  and  all  are  of 
value,  and  of  more  or  less  importance  in  aiding  us  to 
distinguish  plants  of  the  different  classes,  orders,  genera, 
species,  and  even  the  natural  and  cultivated  varieties ; 
but  the  space  at  my  command  will  only  admit  of  a 
brief  notice  of  the  few  with  which  the  propagator  must 
necessarily  become  the  most  familiar.  I  will  say,  how- 
ever, that  he  who  aims  to  know  plants  must  not  think 
that  even  the  minutest  character  is  unimportant,  for 
size  is  only  a  comparative  term  at  best,  and  a  thing  may 
be  great  among  the  small  as  well  as  among  the  large. 
The  most  prominent  appendages  of  stems  are  prickles, 
as  in  the  Nettle  ;  spines,  as  found  on  the  canes  of  the 
Black  Easpberry,  theTBlackberry  and  the  Koses  ;  thorns, 
as  on  the  Hawthorn,  the  Honey  Locust,  and  many  of  the 
larger  cactuses  ;  tendriis,  as  on  the  Clematis,  Grape, 
and  many  other  climomg  plants.  Jjeaves,  flowers,  fruits 
or  seeds  are  other  appendages.  Prickles, "'Spines  and 
thorns  probably  ^aks^an  active  pa^rt  in  the  general  assim- 
ilation of  nutrients  of  the  plant,  atTeast  while  theylire 
younglmd' growing,  but  what  other  pur^ose_jthey  serve 
in  vegetable  economy  is  noire^d^'^^^mmeSrim^iliej: 
than  they  are  distinguishing"  cliaracTeristics  among  the 
vast  numbers  which  Nature  employs  in  her  always  dif- 
ferent and  ever  changing  productions.  To  say  that 
plants  are  armed  with  spines  or  thorns  as  a  protection, 
.as  is  often  asserted,  has  no  foundation  in  fact,  but  it  is  a 
purely  sentimental  idea,  for  the  supposed  protecting 
organs  do  not  protect  against  any  natural  enemy,  for  the 
species  most  fully  armed  with  the  strongest  spines  and 
thorns  often  perish  from  the  attacks  of  some  thin- 
skinned  and  wholly  defenseless  little  insect,  while  the 
giant  thorns  of  some  trees  often  become  the  safe  and 
rather  luxurious  home  of  certain  species  of  the  ant. 

There  are  other  appendages  of  stems   which  may  not 


60  PKOPAGATIOX   OF   PLANTS. 

take  any  very  active  part  in  gathering  or  assimilating 
nutrients,  and  still  be  of  great  service  in  other  ways 
to  the  plants  producing  them— for  instance,  the  filiform 
aerial  organs  on  the  stems  of  the  Poison  Sumac  (Rims 
Toxicodendrori) ,  on  the  Trumpet  Creeper  (Tecoma  radi- 
cans),  American  and  Japan  Ivies  (Ampelopsis) ,  and 
many  other  similar  and  well-known  plants.  These  ap- 


Fig.   18.— GRAPEVINE  TENDEHi. 

pendages  differ  much  in  their  mode  of  attachment  to 
whatever  object  serves  them  as  a  support.  Some  force 
themselves  into  the  cracks  of  the  bark,  wood,  or  rocks, 
or  are  attached  by  minute  lateral  fibres,  while  others,  like 
the  Ampelopsis,  produce  small  flattened  discs  on  the  ends 
of  their  many-branched,  root-like  organs  each  disc  be- 
coming fastened  to  whatever  object  that  happens  to  be 
within  reach.  'Jendrils  are  merely  modified  forms  of  the 
same  .organs  in  these  and  allied  plants,  possessing  various 


STEMS   AND   THEIR   APPENDAGES.  61 

morphological  characters,  often  changing  and^  serving 
different  purposes.  In  many  species  of  plants  having 
woody  steins,  like  the  Grape,  Passion-flower  and  American 
Ivy,  the  tendrils  are  really  metamorphosed  flower-stalks, 
for  while  the  larger  proportion  serve  in  assisting  the 
plant  to  climb  and  retain  a  position  where  ^he  leaves 
will  be  exposed  to  the  light,  a  much  smaller  number  on 
the  same  plant  may  blossom  and  eventually  become  a 
bunqh  of  fruit;  that  is,  a  bunch  o.f  fruit  on  such  plants  is, 
merely  a  productive  tendril.  It  is,only  a  few — from  one 
to  five — of  the  tendrils  first  formed  on  the  young  Grape- 
canes  of  the  season  that  are  fruitful,  all  that  are  produced 
later  being  unproductive  or  barren,  possessing  great 
irritability,  which  causes  them  to  cling  to  or  twine  about 
any  object  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  Tlie  ends 
of  the  tendrils  of  the  plants  under  consideration  are 
divided,  sometimes  into  several  branches,  as  in  the  Ameri- 
can Ivy,  or  into  two  or  more,  as  in  those  of  the  Grape, 
two  being  the  most  usual  number  in  the  latter,  and  these 
not  of  the  same  length ;  consequently,  iwjign^both  divisions 
are  fruitful,  the  bunch  of  grapes  will  be  double,  with  one 
side  shorter  than  the  other,  the  lesser  bunch  having  the 
technical  name  of  "shoulder."  If  there  are  two  short  and 
fruitful  branches  the  bunch  may  be  double-shouldered, 
or  if  there  is  a  greater  number  the  bunch  may  be  a  cluster. 
Such  terms  as  single-shouldered,  double-shouldered  and 
clustered  bunches  are  employed  by  pomologists  in  de- 
scribing the  form  of  the  bunch  in  the  different  culti- 
vated varieties  of  the  Grape. 

It  very  frequently  occurs  that  only  one  division  of  the 
tendril  will  be  fruitful,  as  shown  in  figure  18,  the  other 
remaining  barren,  winding  around  some  convenient 
branch  or  twig.  That  the  tendrils  are  of  the  same  nature 
as  other  parts  of  the  plant,  the  juices  flowing  through 
them  as  actively  as  in  the  stem,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
a  fertile  may  be  grafted  upon  an  unfertile  tendril.  As 


62  PKOPAGATION  OF  PLANTS, 

it  is  a  characteristic  of  the  tendril  to  tarn  away  from  the, 
light  and  seek  the  shade,  it  naturally  follows  that  the 
fruit  of  these  plants  also  ripen  best  when  protected  from 

tlje  direct  rays"  of  the  sun,  as  is  well  known  to 

every  practical  cultivai^r^of  ^h 


In  many  herbaceous  plants  the  tendril  is 
but  a  prolongation  of  the  mid-rib  beyond  the 
point  oJLthe  leaf,  as  seen  in  the  Pea-vine,  and, 
in  a  few  instances,  like  that  of  the  Yellow 
Vetchling  (Lathyrus  Apliacd),  of  Great 
Britain,  the  whole  leaf  is  but  a  filiform  ten- 
dril, while  in  such  climbers  as  the  Clematis, 
Maurandia  and  Lophospermum  the  petiole 
of  the  leaf  may  serve  as  a  tendril. 

All  twining  plants  may  be  considered  in 
the  nature  of  tendrils,  being  irritable  and  sen- 
sitive on  one  side,  enabling  them  to  climb 
supports  and  retain  an  upright  position,  but 
the   biology   of   such   plants   is   scarcely   of 
sufficient  importance  to  the   practical  hor- 
ticulturist to  call  for  treatment  in  detail  in  a 
19.       work  of  this  kind. 
LBAVES  or         I£ud&  may^be  Dlaceo^an  the  list  of  append- 

JERSET  PINE.  "f        ,  •      \ 

ages  oi  stems,  tor  they  are  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  prTJpaganon  of  plants,  being  removed  and 
transferred  from  one  to  another  with  a  portion  of  the 
surrounding  bark  and  wood  attached,  and,  in  such  posi- 
tions, becoming  a  part  of  the  stem  to  which  they  are 
united.  They  are  also,  in  some  instances,  placed  in  a 
position  where  they  produce  roots,  and  thus  become 
separate  individual  plants,  ^ud^  may  therefore  be  briefly 
described  as  organs  enclosing  within  scales  the  rudiments 
of^a  ster^  of  le^v^^^?_^owers.  It  naturallyTolTows 
that  the  appendages  of  highly-developed  plants,  which 
are  called  leaTes,are  merely  theunfoj^ingo^  a 

combination  of  line  tissues  of  tmTsTiern  orofHe?  parts  from 


STEMS  AND  THEIK  APPENDAGES. 


63 


which  they  are  developed.    JLeave$  are  generally  formed 
the  elongajtion  jtrid  expansion  of  the  JigneousJ^undles 

, of "TTssvfes,,  the    interspaces    being    filled    with    cellular 
matter  (Parenchyma),  of  green  or  greenish  color. 
^That  the  woody  part  or  frame-work  of  the  leaf  is  of 


Fiff.   20.— LEAVES  OP  LARCH. 


Fig.  21.— LEAF  OF  LILAC.  Fig.  22.— LEAF  OF  BEECH. 

is   shown 

in  the  readiness  with  which  many  kinds  produce  both 
buds  and  roots;  consequently,  leases  may. produce  stei 

as  wellj  as  stems  leaves. 


64 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Fig.  23.— LEAF  OP  CUT-LEAVED  BIRCH. 


The  general  form  of  the  leaf  depends  mainly  upon  the 
disposition  of  the  principal  veins  and  branches  of  the 
tissues  of  which  the  skeleton  of  the  leaf  is  com- 
posed. W^en  these  tis- 
sues run  parallel,  and 
are  composed  of  a  single 
or  several  thread-like 
fibres,  the  leaves  will 
assume  a  similar  ,|orm, 
as  seen  in  the  linear- 
shaped  leaves  of  the 
Pine  (figure  19,  Jersey 
Pine,  P.  mops).  The 
veins  in  these  leaves 
starting  singly  from  the  stems,  are  each  surrounded  or 
incased  in  cellular  matter.  This  single  form  of  growth 
is  common  in  many  of  the  conifers ;  the  leaves,  instead 
of  having  branching  veins,  grow  in  a  thread-like  bundle 
or  fascicle,  as  in  the  Larch, 
figure  20.  Bjut  in  the  simple 
membranous  leaf,~1ike  that  of 
the  common  garden  .Ldlaa, 
figure  21,  the  central  stem  of 
the  leaf,  for  about  one-third 
of  its  length,  tj^jyi  what  is 
called  a  petiole  or  k-ai-stalk  ; 
then  throws  out  branches,  all 
remaining  united  by  the  thin 
membrane  or  parenchyma, 
which  fill  the  interspaces.  J 
of  the  Beech,  figure  22,  the  secondary  veins  branch  ofi 
at  an  ascending  angle  from  the  mid-rib,  running  almost 
in  a  straight  line  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  leaf,  forming  a 
saw-tooth-like  notch  where  each  terminates.  The  edges 
of  such  leaves  are  said  to  be  serrate,  because  beset  with 
teeth  projecting  forward  like  those  of  a  saw.  But  in 


Fig.  24.— LEAF  OF  BUCKEYE. 

some  leaves,  like  those 


STEMS  AKD  THEIR  APPENDAGES. 


65 


the  leaves  of  the  Cut-leaved  Birch,  figure  23^.  the  branch- 
ing veins  are  of  irregular  or  unequal  lengths,  giving  to 


Fig.  26.— LEAP  OF  ACACIA 
Fig.  25. — LEAF  OF  LOCUST.  GRANDIFLORA. 

the  edges  of  the  leaves  a  jagged  or  tooth-like  form. 
In  the  leaves  of  the^  Buckeye,  figjure24,  t^emid-rib 
"  ^lvision  having  "IhlTap- 


Fig.  27.— LEAF  OF  FERN-LEAVED  ARALIA. 


66  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

pearance  of  a  simple  leaf,  but  all  attached  to  the  petiole 
at  one  point.  Leaves  of  this  kind  are  called  palmate  or 
digitate,  because  they  resemble  or  are  divided  like  the 
fingers  on  the  hand. 

In  the  iQaveSxof  such  trees  as  the  Butternut,  Black 
Walnut  and  common  Locust  (RoUnia,  figure  25),  the 
divisions  of  the  leaf  are  scattered  m  pairs  along  both 
sides  of  a  greatly  lengthened  mid-rib,  and  such  leaves  are 
said  to  be  compound  or  pinnate,  from  the  Latin  penna, 
a  feather.  A  further  subdivision  of  the  leaflets  in  this 
kind  of  a  leaf  is  seen  in  the  Acacias,  and  a  leaf  of  A. 
grandiflora,  much  reduced  in  size,  is  shown  in  figure 
$6.  Leaves  divided  in  this  form  are  said  to  be  fifjnnnaje, 
or  twice  pinnated.  Thore  are  many  hundreds  of  different 
forms  of  these  bipinnate  leaves,  as  well  as  of  all  other 
forms,  and  in  the  Aralias  and  closely  allied  plants  the 
leaves  are  often  of  immense  size.  In  the  Fern-leaved 
Aralia  (A.  ftlicifoUa),  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf -stalk  ex- 
pands into  a  broad,  leafy  branch,  which  is  curiously 
divided,  as  shown  in  figure  27. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
FLOWERS,  FRUITS  AND  SEEDS. 

IJlowers,  like  all  other  organs  and  appendages  of  the 
s&£n^ofj3jants,  assume  almost  innumerable  forms  and 
sizes.  Some  are  almost  microscopic,  or  remain  concealed 
within  an  envelope,  as  in  the  common  Fig,  while  oJJiers 
are  Jarge  and  very  showy,  as  in  several  species  of  the 
Magnolia ;  consequently,  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  con- 
cise and  clear  definition  of  a  flower  that  will  apply  to  all. 
In  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  term,  ajgerfect  flowr 


ELOWEBS,    FRUITS  AND   SEEDS.  67 


is  one  that  contains  all  the  organs  of  reproduction,  as 
seen  m  that  of  the  Apple,  Rose,  and  many  other  similar 
and  common  plants.  At_the^base  and  outside  we  find  a 
floral  envelope  or  Galyx,  and  this  is^divided  into  several 
leaf-like  divisions  called  s&pals.  Within  the  calyx  there 
is  another  set  of  floral  organs  called  pptals^  which  in  the 
flowers  named,  are  larger  and  broader  than  the  sepals  of 
the  calyx,  and  usually  quite  conspicuous — often  of  a 
brilliant  color,  and  together  formjthe  oprolla.  The  nj3x$ 
row  of  organs  aje  stameng,  these  being  slender  and 
thread-like,  composed  of  a  stem  or  filament  tipped_  wjth 
a  knob-like  body,  called  an  aether,  the  latter  being  filled 
with  a  fine  powder,  pollen,  that  differs  widely  in  size 

and  form  in  different  kinds  of  plants.     Xhe  stamens  are 

* 

really  the  Tnaje^  gjgansurfjalants.  for  the  pollen  produced 
by  them  is  Iffie  fructifying  substance,  without  which  no 
seed  can  be  formed  in  any  of  the  higher  orders  of  plants. 
In  the  very  center  of  the  flower  we  find  another  set  of 
slender  organs  called  pistils,  which  rest  upon  or  are  but 
a  part  of  what  is  called  the  ovary — the  organ  that  con- 
tains the  ovnljs^  or  embryo  seeds.  The  pistils  are  tho 
female  organs,  and  it  is  through  these  that  the  pollen 
from  the  anthers  exerts  its  influence  upon  the  embryo 
seeds  in  the  ovary.  The  uppj^rjyr  _  extreme  point,  of  the 
pistil  is  called  the  stigma,  and  the  column,  or  stem  be- 
low, the  style,  that  widens  out  at  the  base  into  an  ovary. 
But  these  simple  and  perfect  flowers  are  but  one  among 
the  many  thousands  of  forms  to  be  found  everywhere 
among  plants,  and  while  in  nearly  all  of  the  plants  with 
distinct  flowers  the  pistils  and  stamens  can  be  readily 
distinguished,  their ^ize^a^d^positipn  are  far  from  being 
uniform.  I^sin^glejind^  those  of  the 

Apple,  both^setsof^orga^s  are  fouxtdinjhe^      ___ 
consequently,  they  are  called  bi-sex^TorDerlect:  bnTm 
many  other  kinds  of  plants,  these  organs  are  found 411 
separate  flojEBrs  on  the  same  plant,  as  seen  in  the  Pines, 

•**irT!i  iJ^^^^Uj^**  •     i     '^^**^^B3  ***•— I—^' 


68  PROPAGATION  OF   PLANTS. 

Oaks,  Beech,  Chestnut,  Walnut,  and  Hazel.  Such  plants 
are  called  mgnceciQus,  because  each  produces  but  one 
kind  of  sexual  organs.  In  other  plants  the  staminate 
and  pistillate  flowers  are  produced  by  sej^arate  pljLiits,  as 
in  the  Poplars,  Buffalo-Berry,  Hop  ancTHemp,  and  in 
some  of  the  "Maples.  The  flowers  of  such  plants  are  said 
to  be  (jicecioytS,  because  the  two  different  sexual  organs 
are  borne  by  separate  individual  plants.  There  are  also 
species  of  ^plants  distributed  among  various  families  and 
genera,  like  certain  species  of  the  Grape,  Ash,  Maple, 
Olive,  and  many  of  the  Palms,  which  bear  flowers,  some 
with  pistils  only,  others  with  stamens,  and  some  with 
both  kinds  of  organs  in  the  same  flower.  Plants  with 
these  variable  flowers  are  said  to  be  polygamous. 

In  plants  like  the  Asters,  Gaillardias,  Seleniums,  and 
the  common  Sunflower,  the,  flowers  are  called  compound, 
being  crowded  together  in  a  broad  head ;  the  position 
tind  distribution  of  the  sexual,  organs  are  variable  (heter- 
ogamoHs),  some  containing  both  stamens  and  pistils, 
while  others  have  neither,  and  are  therefore  neutral  or 
abortive,  as  often  seen  in  the  ray  florets  or  outside  rows 
of  showy  petals  in  such  flowers. 

But  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  attempt  to  describe  or  even 
note  the  many  forms  and  the  \^riabi]itjinjthe  structure 
gf  flowers,  but  merely  to  call  the  attention  of  the  reader 
to  the  fact  that  such  variations  not  only  exist,  but  require 
close  and  careful  investigatmnby  persons  who  desire  or 
intend  to  become  successful  cultivators  and  propagators 
of  plants.  It  must  be  apparent  to  the  most  casual  ob- 
server that  it  would  be  perfectly  useless  to^  set-out  one 
specimen^f  our  native  Buffalo  Berry  (SJiepherdia),  ex- 
pecting it  to  produce  fruit,  for  the  sexual  organs  are  in 
separate^la^ts,  and  the  one  bearing  stamjnate  flowers 
never  produces  fruit  under  any  circumstances,  and  the 
plants  bearing  pistillate  flowers  will  not  bear,  except  ja 
the  presence  of  the  staminate ;  consequently,  it  is  im- 


FLOWERS,   FRUITS  AND  SEEDS.  69 

perative  that  at  least  one  plant  of  each  sex  shall  be  grow- 
ing near  enough  together  to  admit  of  the  pollen  from 
the  anthers  to  reach  the  stigmas  of  the  pistils  with  the 
aid  of  the  wind  or  insects.,  One  staminate  plant  may  be 
sufficient  to  fertilize  the  flowers  of  several  pisti Hates, 
but  the  twp  sexes  must  always  be  present  in  order  to 
secure  fruit  and  seed.  The  same  rule  holds  good  in  all 
dioecious  trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants.  For  fur- 
ther information  on  this  subject,  I  would  refer  the  reader 
to  the  various  standard  works  on  "  Strjictu.ral Botany." 

Fruit,  in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word,  is  some- 
thing different  from  seed,  although,  in  a  strict  botanical 
sense,  they  are  really  inseparable,  for  in  many  plants  it 
requires  both  seed-vessels  and^seeds  to  make  a  perfect 
fruit,  while  in  others  the  fruit  includes  other  parts  of 
the  flower,  such  as  the  bracts  and  floral  envelopes.  But 
the  most  common  idea  of  a  fruit  is  something  edible  and 
different  from  the  seed,  although  it  must  be  said  that  the 
terms  edible  or  eatable  are  rather  vague  and  indefinite, 
inasmuch  as  a  fruit  may  be  eatable  for  one  kind  of  ani- 
mal and  not  another,  and  it  may  also  be  edible,  pala- 
table and  healthful  for  mankind  in  its  improved  condi- 
tion, while  the  same  species  may  be  neither  of  these 
in  its  wild  or  primitive  condition. 

In  the  Peach  it  is  the  juicy,  agreeable  pulp  surround- 
ing. the>.  stone,  or  seed,  that  becomes  the  edible  part,  but 
in  the  Almond,  which  is  closely  allied,  if  not  the  actual 
parent  of  the  Peach,  the  outer  envelope  is  dry  and  not 
edible,  the  kernel  or  -seed,  alone  being  considered  valu- 
able as  food. 

In  common  horticultural  phraseology,  fruits  are  sepa- 
rated from  nuts,  grain  and  other  kinds  of  seeds,  not  that 
the  division  is  always  scientifically  correct,  but  such 
classification  is  made  as  a  matter-  of  convenience,  when 
speaking  of  the  members  of  each  class.  For  instance, 
when  we  speak  of  <tfsnialHrj3ats^_or^ber^es,  it  is  not  to 


70  PROPAGATION  OF   PLANTS. 

be  supposed  that  they  are  all  really  small,  or,  scientific- 
ally speaking,  true  berries,  but  by  common  consent  the 
trailing  plants,  like  the  Strawberry,  Cranberry,  Black- 
berry, cr  upright  growing  bushes,  like  the  Raspberry, 
Gooseberry  and  Currant,  have  received  the  name  of  small 
fruits  or  berries. 

There  is  such  an  immense  number  of  fruits,  and  they 
are  so  variable  in  structure  that  I  can  only  refer  to  a  few, 
Hierely  to  show,  in  a  very  general  way,  their  manner  of 
growth.  There  are  simple  and  compound  fruits  and 
various  sub-divisions  of  each  class.  The  common  Plum 
(figure  28),  Peach  and  Cherry  are  familiar  examples  of 
what  .are  termed  simple  fruits,  or 
the  ripening  of  a  one-celled  pistil, 
the  seed  or  kernel  being  surround- 
ed by  a  hard,  bony  shell,  ai^d  this 
enclosed  in  a  fleshy,  edible  pulp. 
In  the  Cornel  (Cornus  Mas),  and 
common  Dog-wood,  the  seed  is 
composed  of  two  bony  cells,  one 
often  abortive,  but  all  surrounded 
by  the  fleshy,  edible  pulp.  The 
olive  is  also  a  drupe  or  stone  fruit, 

but  with  a  one-celled  seed  vessel. 
Fig.  28.— COMMON  PLUM.      „,,        .„       , 

The    Raspberry  and    Blackberry 

are  really  an  aggregation  of  small  stone  fruits,  their  hard, 
bony  seed  being  surrounded  with  an  edible  pulp,  each 
seed  being  a  ripened  pistil,  but  all  arranged  on  a  conical 
or  elongated  receptacle.  But  in  these  fruits  the  entire 
cluster  is  the  product  of  one  flower.  In  the  Mulberry, 
however,  which  so  closely  resemEIes  the  Blackberry  in 
form  and  general  appearance,  the  fruit- is  really  a  Sorosis 
or  congeries  of  fruits,  the  product  of  numerous  female  or 
pistillate  flowers  .united  ;  the  calyx  of  each  becoming  suc- 
culent and  adhering  to  the  ovary.  The  Bread  fruit  (Ar- 
tocarpus)  and  the  Pineapple  (Ananassa)  arc  multiple 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS.  71 

fruits  ot  this  kind,  formed  by  numerous  ovaries,  floral 
envelopes  and  bracts  combined,  all  uniting  and  becom- 
ing a  succulent  mass. 
The  commo^n  Fig,  al- 
though a  multiple  fruit,, 
is  quite  the  opposite  of 
the  Mulberry,  and  is  a 
Syconus,.  the  peduncle 
or  fruit  stalk,  becoming 
hollow,  bearing  the  nu- 
merous minute  flowers 
within  the  cavity,  where 
all  are  united,  produc- 
ing the  flesh,  or  what  is 
usually  termed  the  fruit. 
The  Strawberry  has 

.— STRAWBERRY  FLOWER.  /  ' 

the  appearance  of  a  Fig 
turned  inside  out,  .but,  instead  of  being  the  product  of 
many  flowers,  it  is  of  only  one,  with  many  pistils,  as 
shown  in  ngure  29.  The  ~  j^ 

petals  and  stamens  drop  off, 
leaving  a  central  fleshy  re- 
ceptacle resting  upon,  or  at- 
tached to,  the  apex  of  the 
peduncle.  As  this  fleshy 
receptacle  enlarges,  the  ova- 
ries or  seeds  spread  apart, 
either  becoming  slightly 
imbedded  in  or  resting  on 
the  surface  of  the  mature 
part,  as  shown  in  figure  30. 
In  the  Pomea3  —  Apple, 
Pear,  Medlar,  Mountain  Fig.  SO.-STRAWBEBBY, 

Ash,  Hawthorn  and  Quince— there  are  from  two  to  five 
Cells,  with  thin  or  thick  walls,  enclosing  one  or  two  seeds 
in  each  cell  in  the  Pear  and  Apple,  or  several  as  in  the 


72  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

Quince.  The  seeds  are  mainly  enclosed  in  a  thin  mem- 
branous covering,  but  in  the  Hawthorn  and  Medlar  it 
is  hard  and  bony.  In  the  formation  of  the  true  pome 
the  calyx  tubes  enlarge  or  thicken,  becoming  a  soft  and 
pulpy  fruit ;  the  sepals  or  leaf-like  divisions  of  the 
calyx  are  carried  forward  as  growth  proceeds,  and  re- 
main attached,  as  seen  in  what  is  called  the  blossom  end 
of  such  fruits.  In  the  Gooseberry  and  Currant  a  some- 
what similar,  enlargement  of  the  calyx  takes  place,  but 
the  ovarj  is  only  one-celled,  the  seeds  being  .imbedded  in 
the  pulp,  and  attached  to  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the 
cell. 

The  Orange  and  Lemon  are  berry-like  in  structure,  the 
ovarj  free  and  many-celled,  each  containing  one  or  more 
seeds*  with  thick,  fleshy  cotyledons.  These  fruits  have 
thick,  spongy  rinds,  and  pulpy  .separable  cells,  the  cell- 
walls  thin  and  membranous.  The  Persimmon  (Diospy- 
ros)  is  also  a  fruit  of  a  berry-like  structure,  with  large 
bony  seeds  imbedded  in  pulp.  The  cells  of  the  ovary  are 
irregular,  and  the  styles  and  stigma  united  as  one,  but 
with  several  distinct  pollen  tubes. 

The  Papaw  or  Custard  Apple  is  a  large  plant  with 
dull-colored  flowers  of  six  petals  in  two  rows,  suc- 
ceeded by  large,  oblong,  pulpy  fruit,  containing  sev- 
eral large,  flattish,  long  seeds.  There  are,  however, 
many  species  belonging  to  this  family,  and  the  fruit 
is  quite  variable  in  form  and  structure.  But,  as  I  have 
already  stated,  the  number  of  different  kinds  of  fruits  is 
far  tco  great  to  admit  of  even  a  brief  description  of  all, 
or  any  considerable  number  of  them,  in  a  work  of  this 
kind  ;  for  even  in  our  cool  climate  there  are,  in  addition 
to  those  already  named,  the  Grape  (  Vitis)  in  many  species, 
the  Barberry  (Berberis),  Buffaloberry  (S/icpherclia), 
Blueberry  ( Vaccinium),  Low  Trailing  Cranberry  (  Vac- 
cinium  Oxycoccos),  High  Bush  Cranberry  (Viburnum 
Opulus),  Elderberry  (Sambucus),  Huckleberry  (Gaylus- 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS. 


73 


accia),  Man  drake  or  May  apple  (Podophyllum),  Partridge- 
berry  (Mitchella)  and  Wintergreenberry  (Gaultheria), 
besides  Melons,  Squashes,  Pumpkins,  Cu- 
cumbers, Tomatoes,  etc.,  all  of  which 
come  under  the  head  of  edible  fruits.  In 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries  there 
is  still  a  greater  number  which  I  must 
omit  mentioning  here,  but  nearly  all  will 
be  named  elsewhere. 

NATURE  OF  SEEDS. — Seeds  are  embryo 
plants,  the  mature,  fecundated  ovule,  with 
is  31-         certain    nutritive    properties    stored    up 

Q.   PEDUNCULATA.         ..,    .  .  ,         ,.  A 

within  various  protective  organs.  A  seed 
is  also  a  living  organism  which  separates  from  its  parent, 
and  is  then  capable  of  becoming  a  new  individual  of  the 
same  species.  When  mature  they 
contain  various  albuminous,  ligne- 
ous and  oily  compounds  required 
to  supply  the  young  plantlet  with 
nutriment  during  its  early  stages  of 
growth,  or  until  roots  are  produced 
through  which  it  can  obtain  nutri- 
ents from  surrounding  elements. 
Some  seeds  acquire  a  stony  hard- 
ness when  ripe,  as  seen  in  the  Ivory 
Nut ;  others  remain  soft  and  fleshy,  as  in  the  Horse- 
chestnut,  or  partly  fleshy  and  partly 
liquid,  as  in  the  Cocoanut ;  others, 
like  those  of  the  maples  and  elms,  are 
soft,  and  the  cotyledons  leaf -like ; 
others  are  of  a  starchy  nature,-  as  in 
Oats,  Buckwheat  and  the  Onion. 

Seeds  are  usually  enclosed  in  a  peri- 
carp or  seed-vessel,  which  offers  protec- 
tion to  the  kernel  and  germ.     Some- 
times there  are  several  of  these  protective  organs,  as  seen 


Fig.  32. 

Q.   P.   FASTIGIATA. 


Fig.  £3. 

Q.    TINCTORIA. 


74 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


in  the  Chestnut,  Filbert  and  Walnut,  the  outer  husk 
enclosing  the  nut  becoming  detached  at  maturity  from 
the  parent  plant,  as  well  as  from  the  nut  proper,  while 
within  the  latter  there  is  another  integument  in  the  form 
of  a  thin  membrane  surrounding  the  kernel.  In  some 

of  the  Oaks  the  outer  husk  is 
but  a  shallow  cup,  figures  31 
and  32  ;  in  other  species  the 
cup  extends  farther  up  or  is 
deeper,  figures  33  and  34, 
while  in  a  few  the  nut  is  nearly 
covered  with  the  husk. 
T\e  stalk  of  the  seed  is  called  the  fyniculus,  and 
when  a  seed  breaks  loose  from  the  stalk  at  maturity  it 
leaves  a  scar,  as  seen  in  the  garden  bean,  which  is  called 
the  liilum.  Sometimes  this  funiculus  is  extended  or 
even  rolled  up  within  the  seed-vessel,  forming  a  thread- 
like attachment  to  the  seed,  as  seen  in  those  of  the  Mag- 
nolias, allowing  the  seed  to  drop  out  and  remain  for  a 


Fig.  31—  Q.   ALBA. 


Fig.  35. — ULMUS  SUBEROSA. 


Fig.  36. 

TJ.    CAMPESTRIS. 


Fig.  37. 

TJ.   EFFUSA. 


time  suspended  to  the  seed-vessel.  On  the  seed  of  the 
Common  Swamp  Magnolia  (Magnolia  glauca),  this  um- 
bilical cord  is  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  and  quite  con- 
spicuous as  the  seed  drops  out  of  the  cone-shaped  pods 
in  autumn. 

In  form,  size  and  structure,  as  well  as  in  chemical 
composition  of  seeds,  variation  is  the  rule,  as  well  as  in 
other  parts  and  appendages  of  plants.  Seeds  of  differ- 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS.  75 

ent  families,  genera  and  species  may  have  sufficient 
general  resemblance  to  enable  the  botanist  to  determine 
very  nearly  where  they  belong,  still  they  will  usually  vary 
considerably  in  many  of  their  characters,  even  when  very 
closely  related,  and  as  near  alike  as  two  peas  from  the 
same  pod,  and  yet  no  two  peas  are  exactly  alike. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  SEEDS. — Nature  has  provided  vari- 
ous methods  for  the  distribution  of  seeds,  thereby  in  a 
measure  preventing  overcrowding  of  plants,  although  it  is 
quite  evident  that,  in  her  prodigality,  she  produces  a  far 
greater  number  of  seeds  than  can  possibly  grow,  with 


Fig.  38.— SEED  OF  THE  ASH. 

room  for  the  plants  to  reach  maturity;  but  as  animals  are 
dependent  upon  plants  for  support,  seeds  are  largely  con- 
sumed, and  yet,  when  this  demand  has  been  fully  provided 
for,  there  is  still  a  large  surplus  of  some  kinds,  and  the 
war  of  races,  as  well  as  of  kinds,  takes  place,  ending  in 
what  has  been  aptly  termed  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest." 
The  seeds  of  many  herbs  and  trees  are  provided  with 
long  hair-like  appendages  (pappus),  as  seen  on  the  seed- 
vessels  and  seeds  of  the  Thistles  (Cirsium),  Milkweeds 
(Asclepias),  Willow-herbs  (Epilobium),  Dandelion  (Tar- 
axacum), Cottonwood  (Populus),  which  assist  in  their 


76 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


distribution  by  the  wind.  Others  have  hooked  awns  on 
the  outside  of  their  seed-vessels,  as  on  those  of  the  Bur- 
dock (Lappa)  and  Beggar-ticks  (Bidens),  which  become 
attached  to  any  rough  surface  like  the  hide  of  animals  or 

wool  of  sheep,  and  by  such 
means  become  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  seeds  of  many 
kinds  of  trees  are  provided 
with  wing-like  appendages, 
those  of  the  Elm  having  a 
thin  membrane  passing  nearly 
or  quite  around,  the  edge  of 
the  seed,  as  shown  in  figures 
35  to  37.  The  Ash  tree  has 
long,  slender  one  to  two  celled 
seeds  with  a  wing  on  two 
sides  and  the  upper  end — 
figure  38.  The  seeds  of  the 
Maples  are  produced  in  pairs, 
each  pair  the  product  of  a 
single  flower,  the  membrane 
of  the  wing  growing  inward 
from  its  stem,  as  shown  in 
figure  39,  which  represents  a 
pair  of  the  seeds  of  the  Large- 
Fig.  SPACER  MACROPHYLLUM.  leaved  California  Maple  (Acer 

macrophyllum)  of  natural  size. 

In  the  Coniferce,  or  cone-bearing  trees,  the  seeds  of  a 
large  majority  of  the  species  are  winged,  but  in  only  a 
limited  number  are  these  appendages  of  any  assistance  in 
their  distribution.  In  the  seeds  of  the  Great  Tree  of 
California  (Sequoia  giganted),  the  Arbor  Vitass  (Thuya), 
and  closely  allied  species,  the  wings  are  firmly  attached 
to  the  seeds,  consequently  aiding  in  their  extended  dis- 
tribution as  they  fall  from  the  cones,  but  in  many  species 
of  conifers  the  wings  are  deciduous,  readily  parting 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS.  77 

from  the  seed  as  soon  as  it  is  mature,  and  before  drop- 
ping from  the  cone.  In  the  Pines  especially,  we  find  a 
wide  variation  in  this  respect,  for  in  some  species,  like 
those  of  the  Northern  Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida),  figure 
40,  the  wing  of  the  seed  is  three  or  four  times  the 
length  of  the  seed,  and  it  adheres  until  the  seed  has  been 
widely  scattered,  but  in  those  with  larger  seed,  such  as 

the  Nut  Pines  (P.  edulis)  and  others,  the  wings 

become  detached  before,    or  at  the  time,  the 

seeds  fall  from  the  cone. 

While  wind  and  water,  birds  and  mammals 

of  various  kinds,  assist  in  the  distribution  of 
Fi£.'40.    seeds,    there    is    110   discrimination    in    these 
SriNu°P   natural  processes,  and  the  seeds  of  worthless 
RIGIDA.    and    pestiferous   plants  are   just  as  likely  to 
spread  over  the  earth's  surface  and   grow  as   the  most 
valuable  and  useful. 

VITALITY  ,.OF  SEEDS. — Perfect  and  mature  seeds,  as 
I  have  said  elsewhere,  are  living  organisms,  within  which 
there  can  be  no  absolute  cessation  in  the  action  of  the 
living  principles  or  vital  forces,  for  when  this  occurs  the 
seed  dies,  and  a  purely  chemical  change  follows,  however 
slow  and  protracted  it  may  prove  to  be.  Sometimes  the 
vital  actions  may  appear  to  be  almost  suspended,  either 
under  normal  or  abnormal  conditions,  but  they  are  never 
absolutely  quiescent,  and  while  some  kinds  of  seeds  may 
retain  their  vitality  for  many  years  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, there  is  a  limit  to  individual  life  even  among 
seeds.  No  known  species  will  remain  alive  for  "ages," 
as  has  been  so  often  asserted  by  persons  whose  imagina- 
tion seems  to  have  been  far  more  fertile  than  their 
knowledge  was  profound.  It  has  been  frequently  claimed 
that  Wheat,  and  other  kinds  of  grain,  taken  from  the 
Egyptian  tombs  and  the  wrappings  of  mummies,  where 
it  was  deposited  many  thousands  of  years  ago,  has  been 
made  to  germinate  and  grow  when  planted,  but  there  are 


78  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

no  well  authenticated  instances  of  any  such  growths. 
Whenever  any  of  these  supposed-to-be  very  ancient  seeds 
germinate,  we  may  conclude  that  there  has  been  some 
trickery  about  the  matter.  Travelers  in  search  of  curi- 
osities are  usually  accommodatad  by  servants  and  guides, 
for  even  Indian  Corn  or  Maize,  unknown  in  Europe  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  America,  has  been  furnished  travel- 
ers, among  other  seeds  claimed  to  have  been  found  in  the 
ancient  Egyptian  tombs.  We  may  also  distrust  all  ac- 
counts of  the  germination  of  seeds  that  have  been  buried 
in  the  earth  for  hundreds  and  thousands  of  years,  and 
brought  to  the  surface  in  digging  wells,  canals  and  other 
similar  deep  excavations,  for  in  no  instance  that  has  been 
traced  to  any  trustworthy  source  have  the  plants  raised 
from  such  seeds  been  specifically  different  from  those 
recently  introduced  or  indigenous  to  the  same  locality. 
No  new  genera  or  species  from  such  seeds  have  ever  been 
brought  to  light,  as  might  be  expected  if  they  were  the 
product  of  some  very  ancient  plants  or  locally  extinct 
species,  as  usually  claimed.  It  is  certainly  true  that  no 
one  knows  how  long  some  kinds  of  seeds  may  remain 
sound  when  buried  deeply  in  the  earth,  or  for  how  many 
years  some  kinds  may  retain  their  vitality  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions,  but  when  we  come  to  test  seeds  by 
actual  and  carefully  conducted  experiments,  we  find  little 
to  support  the  theories  advanced  in  regard  to  long  dura- 
tion of  vitality. 

Many  hundreds  of  experiments  have  been,  and  are  still 
being  made,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  limits  of 
life  in  seeds,  the  results  differing  but  slightly,  or  no 
more  than  might  be  expected  from  the  unavoidable  vari- 
ableness of  conditions,  while  all  do  show  that  vitality 
decreases  more  or  less  rapidly  with  age. 

Size  has  no  influence  on  the  vitality  or  keeping  pro- 
perties of  seeds,  for  the  Cocoanut,  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions,  will  not  remain  alive  half  as  long  as  the 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AKD   SEEDS.  79 

seeds  of  the  common  Field  Poppy,  which  are  a  million  of 
times  less  in  bulk. 

Neither  has  there  heen  as  yet  discovered  any  peculiar 
property  of  seeds  that  would  make  those  possessing  it 
insensible  to  the  influence  of  surrounding  elements  and 
conditions.  It  might  readily  be  supposed,  upon  general 
principles,  that  seeds  containing  a  large  amount  of  oil 
would  be  far  less  likely  to  be  affected 
by  moisture,  dry  ness,  or  even  a  low 
temperature,  than  those  of  an  opposite 
nature,  but  long  experience  with  such 
seeds  shows  that  oil  is  not  a  preserva- 
tive property.  For  instance,  such 
large  seeds  as  the  Butternut,  Hickory- 
nut,  Black  Walnut  and  European  Wal- 
nut contain  a  large,  fleshy,  oily  kernel  ^Fiff.  41. 
(figure  41),  which,  from  appearances,  ' 
we  might  suppose  would  be  able  to  resist  ordinary  adverse 
conditions  for  a  long  time,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  are 
quite  sensitive  to  extremes  of  any  kind,  and  it  is  with 
difficulty  such  nuts  can  be  preserved  alive  and  sound  for 
even  a  twelvemonth.  If  kept  warm,  a  chemical  change 
takes  place,  and  the  oil  in  the  kernel  becomes  rancid.  In 
a  moist  position  the  kernel  soon  decays,  and,  while  a  freez- 
ing temperature  will  check  decay,  if  it  be  long  continued 
the  germ  of  the  seed  is  destroyed.  But,  on  the  contrary, 
the  minute  oily  seeds  of  the  Mustard  will  withstand  con- 
siderable drying,  a  high  temperature  or  a  low  one,  and 
still  retain  their  vitality  for  several  years.  Such  minute 
seeds  as  the  common  garden  Pursley  or  Purslane  (Por- 
tulaca),  will  withstand  great  extremes  of  temperature, 
also  alternate  soaking  and  drying  while  buried  in  the 
soil,  and  yet  survive  these  changes,  while  the  great  hard- 
shelled  nuts,  as  well  as  many  of  the  seeds  of  our  forest 
trees,  must  grow,  if  at  all,  or  die  within  a  few  weeks,  or 
months  at  farthest,  after  reaching  maturity.  There  are, 


80  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

of  course,  certain  families  of  plants,  the  seeds  of  which 
possess  much  greater  tenacity  to  life  than  others,  but  in 
all,  time  is  a  weakening  element.  The  seeds  of  Melons 
and  Cucumbers  may  be  preserved  in  good  condition  for 
growth  from  one  to  fifteen  years,  and  even  at  the  latter 
age  yield  a  fair  proportion  of  plants,  while  the  seeds 
of  the  Onion,  Carrot  and  Celery  soon  perish  if  kept 
under  the  same  conditions,  few  germinating  after  they 
are  three  or  four  years  old. 

Then  there  are  other  kinds  of  seeds  which  require  age 
and  long  exposure  to  heat  and  moisture  to  soften  their 
horn-like  covering,  as  in  those  of  the  Cmtcegus,  Mespilus, 
Cornus,  Halesia,  Ilex,  and  several  species  of  the  Rose ; 
but  in  all  of  these,  and  others  of  like  character,  a  few 
weeks'  exposure  to  a  dry  atmosphere  will  either  destroy 
vitality,  or  so  harden  the  shell  that  the  pores  of  the  latter 
will  not  open  again  to  admit  moisture  to  the  kernel. 

It  might  readily  be  supposed  that  the  natural  sur- 
roundings of  vessels  enclosing  seeds  would  not  only 
afford  the  best  protection,  but  also  insure  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  the*prolongation  and  preservation  of 
their  vitality,  and  while  this  is  true  in  many  instances,  it 
is  quite  the  contrary  in  others.  The  pulp  of  the  Apple, 
Pear,  Quince  and  similar  fruits,  if  left  to  decay  about  the 
seed,  is  almost  certain  to  destroy  it,  from  the  chemical 
changes  which  occur  in  the  decomposition  of  what  is 
called  the  fruit,  consquently  to  remove  the  seed  by  arti- 
ficial means  is  assisting  nature  in  its  preservation. 

There  are  seeds  which  naturally  begin  to  grow  while 
still  attached  to  the  fruit-stalk,  not  separating  from  the 
parent  plant  until  after  germination  and  the  production 
of  roots.  The  fruit  of  the  Mangrove  tree  (Rhizophora 
Mangle),  of  Southern  Florida,  is  a  well-known  example  of 
this  kind  of  seed.  Then,  again,  there  are  other  seeds 
which  will  remain  sound  for  many  years  if  kept  sealed  up 
in  their  natural  and  multiple  integuments,  as  seen  in 


FLOWERS,    FRUITS   AND   SEEDS. 


81 


many  of  the  conifers,  and  especially  among  the  Pines  and 
Cedars,  the  cones  of  some  of  these  not  opening  or  allow- 
ing the  seed  to  escape  for  several  years  after  maturity. 
The  cone  of  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Cedrus  Libani),  is  a 
somewhat  remarkable  example  of  this  kind,  and  in  one 
instance  it  is  reported  upon  trustworthy  authority  that 
seeds  from  a  cone  that  had  been  kept  in  a  cabinet  forty 
years,  germinated  quite  freely  when  planted.  But  it 
should  be  noted  that  seeds  enclosed  and  sealed  up  in 
these  cones  are  not  only  surrounded  by  the  natural 
balsamic  elements,  but  are  also  attached  to  the  rhachis  or 
axis  of  the  cone,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  draw 
some  sustenance  therefrom  during  their  long  imprison- 
ment. It  is  certain  that  when  removed  from  the  cone 
their  vitality  decreases  rapidly.  When  seeds  of  this  kind 
are  to  be  kept  for  a  year  or  more  they  should  be  left  in 
the  cones  until  wanted  for  use.  Of  course  the  seeds  of 
conifers  which  naturally  drop  from  the  cone  when  mature 
cannot  be  preserved  in  this  way. 

Experiments  have  been,  and  are  still  being,  made  for 
the  purpose  or  determining  the  relative  duration  of  life 
in  different  kinds  of  seeds  that  have  been  preserved 
under  what  are  considered  favorable  conditions,  but  all 
show  that  fresh,  new  seeds  are  far  preferable  to  old  ones, 
and  these  the  propagator  always  endeavors  to  secure. 

Many  years  ago  Professor  Alphonse  De  Candolle,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  botanists  of  Europe,  tested  the  vitality 
of  368  species  of  seeds,  fifteen  years  old,  all  collected  in 
the  same  garden,  and  sowed  at  the  same  time  and  under 
the  same  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  following 
are  the  results  : 

Malvaceae 5  came  up  out  of  10  species. 

Le^uminosae . 9  '              45 

Labiate I  30 

Scrophulariaceas 0  10 

Umbelliferse 0  10 

Caryophyllacas .0  16 

Gramineae 0  32 

Crucifera 0  34 

Composite 0  45 


82  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  list  that  seeds  of  the 
MalvacecB  or  Mallow  family  retained  their  vitality  the 
longest,  as  one-half  of  the  species  germinated  after  fifteen 
years,  while  of  the  Leguminosas  only  one  in  five  germin- 
ated, while  with  barely  one  exception  all  of  the  others 
failed.  Prof.  Balfour,  in  referring  to  the  experiments 
of  Prof.  De  Candolle,  says  :  "Large  seeds  were  found  to 
retain  their  germinating  powers  longer  than  small  ones, 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  separate  albumen  or  peri- 
sperm  did  not  seem  to  make  any  difference.  Composites 
and  Umbelliferse  lost  their  germinating  power  very  early," 

From  these  experiments  Prof.  De  Candolle  concludes 
that  duration  of  vitality  is  frequently  in  an  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  rapidity  of  the  germination. 

PRESERVATION  OF  SEEDS. — While  the  propagator  of 
plants  will  usually  endeavor  to  sow  seeds  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable after  they  are  ripe,  still  it  is  often  necessary,  as 
well  as  desirable,  to  preserve  them  in  good  condition  for 
a  few  months,  and  sometimes  for  several  years.  The 
most  favorable  conditions  for  preserving  the  germinating 
power  of  seeds  no  doubt  are  such  as  maybe  said  to  accord 
with  natural  laws,  but  not  by  strict  natural  methods. 
Cultivated  plants  are  mostly  far  removed  from  their 
native  habitats,  and  are  also  subjected  to  the  influence 
of  artificial  surroundings ;  therefore  we  could  not,  if  we 
would,  adopt  nature's  methods  of  propagation  ;  besides, 
wj^aim  to  improve  upon  nature,  and  make  a  far  greater 
number  of  seeds  grow  than  is  possible  in  the  absence  of 
man's  assistance.  There  can  be  no  general  rule  given 
for  the  preservation  of  seeds,  but  by  arranging  plants 
into  groups  we  may  devise  a  set  of  rules  which  will 
assist,  if  they  do  not  prove  to  be  an  infallible  guide.  As 
I  have  already  stated,  the  seeds  of  conifers  keep  better 
in  the  cones,  whenever  this  is  practicable,  than  when  re- 
moved, and  the  same  rule  holds  good  with  many  other 
kinds  of  seeds  that;  are  not  enclosed  in  cones.  Indian 


FLOWERS,   FRUITS  AKD  SEEDS.  83 

Corn,  will  keep  sound  on  the  cob  much  longer  than  if 
shelled  when  first  gathered,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
Millets,  Sorghums,  and  even  of  the  smaller  grasses,  if 
they  are  stored  in  a  dry,  cool  place.  Seeds  of  some  of  the 
Leguminosse  will  remain  sound  for  many  years  if  kept 
enclosed  and  sealed  up  jin  the  pods,  and  it  is  well  known 
to  seed-growers  that  the  seed  of  the  common  Onion  will 
retain  its  vitality  much  longer  in  the  heads  than  if 
threshed  out  as  soon  as  ripe.  For  all  kinds  of  speeds  . 
which  will  admit  of  any  drying,  like  those  jof  our  com- 
mon vegetables  and  cereals,  there  is  probably  no  better 
method  of  preservation  than  tp  store,  in  boxes  or  bins, 
and  small  lots  in  cloth  or  paper  bags,  and  place  them  in  a 
dry,  cool  room.  <&*' 

Seeds  with  hard  shells,  like  the  nuts,  which  require 
softening  or  opening  of  the  pores  of  the  shell  to  admit 
moisture  to  the  kernel,  shoul4_J:>e  jplaced  in  a  position 
where  these  essential  conditions  will  be  assured.  In  cold 
climates,  frost  and  moisture  will  expand  the  shell,  andm 
warm  ones  heat  and  moisture  perform  the  same  service. 
But  whether  the  seeds  are  to  be  kept  dry  or  moist,  in  a 
high  or  low  temperature,  these  conditions  should  be  as 
uniform  as  possible,  extremes  of  every  nature  being 
more  or  less  injurious,  even  if  they  do  not  entirely  destroy 
vitality. 

QERMT^ATJO£[  OF  SEEps.— Beafe  moisture  and  air 
are  the  principal  requisites  for  the  germination  of  seeds. 
Light  is  not  essential,  and  on  some  kinds  of  seeds  it  ap- 
pears to  be  detrimental,  retarding  germination,  presum- 
,ably  from  its  known  action  in  the  decomposition  of 
carbonic  acid.  The  temjpera^ture  required  is  exceedingly 
variable,  for  with  the  seeds  of  some  t^opical^olants  a 
hundred  or  more  degrees  Fahrenheit  are  necessary  to 
cause  germination,  while  there  are  those,  natives  of  Qool^ 
cjj mates,  that  will  sprout  at  a  temperature  of  thirty-four 
or  five,  or  two  or  three  degrees  above  the  freezing  point. 


84  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

As  the  heat  and  moiature  come  in  contact  with  seeds  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  composed  §well.  and  soften, 
chemical  changes  follow,  rendering  the  stored  np  matter 
fit  for  nourishing  the  embryo.  In  albuminous  seeds  the 
starch  is  changed  into  dextrine,  thence  to  sugar,  through 
what  may  be  termed  the  result  of  contact  and  the  re- 
arrangement of  the  molecules  of  the  seed.  Oxygen  is 
absorbed  and  heat  generated,  as  may  be  seen  on  an  ex- 
tended scale  in  the  operation  of  malting  Barley  and  other 
kinds  of  grain.  In  exalbuminous  seeds  slightly  different 
chemical  changes  occur,  but  all  tend  to  the  preparation 
of  nutriment  for  the  embryo  plant.  It  is  quite  evident 
that  the  chemical  changes  that  take  place  in  sprouting 
seeds  QifteT  as  widely  as  do  their  chemical  properties,  but, 
all  are  set  inaction  by  the  stimulus  (heat)  in  the  presence 
qf  moisture.  ^^ 

The  increase  of  heat  accelerates  germination,  provided 
it  is  not  carried  so  far  as  to  prevent  the  natural  chemical 
processes.  A  temperature  of  sixty-five  to  seventy-five 
degrees  may  be  considered  a  safe  one  for  most  kinds 
of  fruit,  flower  and  vegetable  seeds,  but  those  with  hard 
^hells  or  coverings,  and  especially  those  of  tropical 
origin,  will  usually  require  a  higher  temperature.  In  a 
lower  temperature,  or  less  than  fifty  degrees,  the  necessary 
chemical  changes  proceed  very  slowly,  if  at  all,  and  often 
cease  altogether,  even  after  having  once  commenced,  and 
when  this  occurs  the  seed  usually  decays,  and  for  this 
reason  haste  in  sowing  seeds  in  spring,  and  before  the 
ground  is  warmed  by  the  sun  and  showers,  often  gives 
unsatisfactory  results.  The  germination  of  seeds  is 
governed  by  the  same  principles  as  that  of  the  production 
of  buds  from  tubers,  bulbs  and  even  the  emission  of  roots 
from  cuttings  of  ligneous  plants,  the  starchy  matter 
stored  up  in  the  cells  undergoing  very  similar  chemical 
changes  in  the  reorganization  and  growth  of  the  new 
cells. 


CIRCULATION  OF  SAP.  85 

CHAPTEK  VII. 
CIRCULATION    OF    SAP. 

Plants  obtain  the  principal  part  of  their  nourishment 
from  the  liquids  and  gases  absorbed  by  their  roots.  The 
fluids  and  gases  thus  absorbed  is  called  crude  sap,  and  this, 
meeting  previously  assimilated  matter  in  the  cells,  min- 
gles with  it,  and  going  forward  or  upward  until  it  reaches 
the  buds,  twigs,  or  expanded  leaves,  is  there  exposed  to 
or  meets  both  air  and  light,  producing  chemical  changes 
resulting  in  what  is  termed  organizable  matter. 

The  movement  of  fluids  in  endogenous  plants  is  not  so 
readily  determined  as  in  the  exogenous,  owing  to  the  in- 
termingling of  the  woody  and  vascular  bundles.  It  is, 
however,  quite  probable  that  both  take  part  in  the  move- 
ment, and  as  we  find  cambium  near  the  vascular  bundles, 
it  may  serve  the  same  purpose  as  this  material  in  the 
exogens.  But  experiments  are  wanting  to  show  how  the 
transmission  of  sap  takes  place  in  the  various  and  com- 
plex structure  of  endogenous  stems ;  still  it  is  known 
that  there  is  both  an  upward  and  downward  flow,  but  its 
movement  has  not  been  so  accurately  determined  as  in 
the  exogenous  stems. 

The  cr^ude  sa,p,  or  liquid  taken  in  by  the  roots  by  the 
process  of  imbibition,  does  not  mss  upward  through  open 
tube-like  vessels,  but  from  cell  to  cell  by  an  endosmose 
and  exosmose  action,  as  explained  in  Chapter  I. ;  conse- 
quently, the  crude  liquid  does  not  remain  separate  from 
the  old  or  previously  assimilated  sap  in  the  cells,  but  the 
new  and  thinner  liquid  lessens  the  density  of  the  older, 
and  both,  thus  mingled,  flow  on  upwaj^L  vr^  out jvard ,  as 
the  case  may  be,  to  the  ends  of  the  branches,  the. result 
.pf  some  force  not  fully  understood.  Physiologists  do  not 
agree  in  regard  to  the  cause  of  motion  in  the  liquids  of 
plants.  Some  attribute  it  to  what  they  term  capillary 


86  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

attraction,  and  that  the  continuous  upward  flow  is  sus- 
tained through  constant  evaporation  and  transpiration 
which  takes  place  in  the  buds,  leaves  and  young  parts 
of  the  plant. 

Prof.  J.  W.  Draper  attributes  the  movement  of  sap  to 
capillary  attraction,  which  he  considers  an  electrical  phe- 
nomenon. Prof.  Leibig  takes  a  somewhat  similar  view  of 
the  phenomenon,  and  thinks  that  as  evaporation  and  trans- 
piration take  place  in  the  leaves  and  buds,  a  portion  of 
the  fluids  are  thus  removed  and  capillary  attraction  is 
promoted.  Prof.  Balfour  is  inclined  to  attribute  the 
movement  to  capillarity  in  the  vessels  of  the  higher  plants, 
and  through  the  process  of  endosmose  the  continued 
imbibition  and  movement  of  fluids  is  chiefly  carried  on. 
These  movements,  he  says,  will  of  course  take  place  with 
greater  vigor  and  rapidity,  according  to  the  activity  of 
the  processes  going  on  in  the  leaves,  which  thus  tends 
to  keep  up  the  circulation.  Still,  if  a  small  or  large  root 
of  a  Maple  is  severed  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the  main 
stem  in  spring,  before  the  leaves  expand,  the  sap  will 
flow  from  the  wound  with  as  much  force  as  it  will  from 
a  branch  or  twig  of  the  same  size  and  the  same  distance 
from  the  base  of  the  stem,  a  fact  that  does  not  appear  to 
establish  the  theory  of  capillary  attraction. 

It  is  quite  evident,  however,  from  what  we  do  know 
about  the  movement  of  fluids  in  plants,  that  there  are 
different  forces  that  act  and  assist  in  their  movements, 
and  it  may  be  due  in  part  to  vital  force — variation  in 
temperature,  or  those  changes  which  result  from  the 
action  of  light  and  air — and  partly  from  capillary  attrac- 
tion following  the  continuous  loss  by  evaporation,  ^hich 
must  constantly  affect  the  density  of  the  fluids,  thereby 
promoting  endosmose  and  exosmose  action. 

In  many  herbaceous  and  acquatic  plants  there  is  a 
rotary  or  spiral  motion  of  the  fluids  within  each  individ- 
ual .cell  that  can  be  readily  seen  with  a  magnifier  of  mod- 


CIRCULATION   OF  SAP.  87 

erate  power ;  and,  furthermore,  this  rotation  is  constantly 
in  one  direction,  and  if  checked  and  then  set  in  motion 
again  it  proceeds  in  its  original  course,  just  as  certain 
twining  plants  will  turn  only  in  one  direction.  But  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  fluids  in  the  cell  does  not  prevent 
a  portion  from  passing  through  the  cell  walls,  and  the 
peculiar  action  is  kept  up  in  all  so  long  as  active  growth 
proceeds. 

Boucherie,  in  his  investigations  upon  trees  in  France, 
found  that  felled  trees  continued  to  imbibe  moisture 
through  their  exposed  cells  with  considerable  force,  and 
that  a  Poplar  ninety-two  feet  high  absorbed  in  six  days 
nearly  sixty-six  gallons  of  pyrolignite  of  iron.  We  all 
know  that  cut  stems  of  plants,  it  placed  in  water,  will  keep 
fresh  a  much  longer  time  than  if  the  lower  ends  are  not 
immersed,  or  in  some  other  manner  supplied  with  liquids, 
and  this  is  mainly,  but  not  wholly,  due  to  the  absorption 
through  the  exposed  cells.  It  is  evident  that  heat  and 
light  have  a  powerful  influence  in  the  flow  of  sap  in 
plants,  by  promoting  transpiration  and  action  in  the 
cells,  but  imbibition  of  liquids  by  the  roots  does  not 
necessarily  cease  with  growth  of  the  plant,  or  even  loss 
of  foliage,  for  as  liquids  of  less  density  than  those  within 
them  are  presented  to  the  roots,  absorption  must  con- 
tinue, although  the  movement  may  be  slow  when  the 
plant  is  less  active  than  during  the  growing  season.  We 
conclude  that  this  must  occur  from  the  fact  that  trees, 
shrubs  and  other  plants,  while  apparently  at  rest,  even  in 
cold  climates,  become  gorged  with  liquids,  and  at  a 
season  when  there  cannot  be  any  considerable  exhalation 
from  the  leaves  of  evergreens,  or  the  twigs  and  buds  of 
deciduous  kinds,  which  would  promote  or  cause  continue^ 
absorption  of  liquids  by  the  roots  ;  still,  it  is  well  known 
to  every  investigator  that  exhalation  from  the  parts  of 
plants  exposed  to  the  air  does  not  cease  altogether,  even 
in  the  coldest  weather,  and  the  loss  of  this  moisture 


88  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

must  be  made  good  from  the  parts  below.  Whenever 
there  is  a  tojbal  cessation  of  the  movement  of  fluids 
through  the  stems  and  branches  death  follows,  and  in 
ligneous  plants  the  wood,  bark  and  buds  become  dry  and 
shriveled.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  entire 
sap  of  trees  never  becomes  frozen  solid,  and  that  there  is 
always  a  flow  of  gaseous  matter,  if  not  of  heavier  liquids, 
through  the  cells,  even  when  the  plants  are  in  a  semi- 
dormant  state.  The  often  repeated  experiment  of  forcing 
into  growth  under  glass  a  cane  of  a  Grapevine  or  branch 
of  a  fruit  tree  while  attached  to  the  parent  plant,  remain- 
ing out  of  doors  and  apparently  frozen,  shows  that  there 
must  be  some  communication  between  the  semi-dormant 
parts  and  those  within  the  house. 

The  first  effect  of  light  and  warmth  in  spring  is  to 
stimulate  action  in  the  plants.  The  fluids  absorbed  from 
the  soil  by  the  roots  are  carried  upward  from  cell  to  cell, 
through  the  alburnum  or  sap-wood  of  exogenous  stems, 
to  the  leaves  and  buds,  where  they  are  exposed  to  air  and 
Jight,  and  there  changgd  into  organizable  mattei^hrgugh 
a  process  which  is  termed  assimilation,  Some  of  the 
liquid  pa<rt  of  the  sap  is  exhaled,  passing  off  into  the 
atmosphere,  while  a  portion  of  the  assimilated  matter 
goes  to  aid  in  the  prolongation  of  the  twigs,  enlargement 
of  the  leaves,  buds,  flowers  and  fruit,  and  other  portions 
are  spread  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  plant  through 
the  liber  or  inner  bark,  even  extending  down  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  roots,  adding  to  their  size  and  prolonga- 
tion. In  this  way  the  concentric  layers  of  wood  are 
formed  on  the  outside  of  the  stem  and  branches.  If 
there  is  no  cessation  of  growth  during  the  summer  the 
newly-formed  cells  coalesce,  producing  a  homogeneous, 
uniform  concentric  layer  which  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  those  of  previous  years.  This  is  the  usual 
method  of  growth  in  exogens,  but  the  sap  may  be  diverted 
from  its  natural  course, lor  if  obstructed,  the  tissues  will 


CIRCULATION  Ofc  SAP.  89 

change  their  functions  and  propel  the  fluids  in  other 
directions  through  the  cells  instead  of  lengthwise  with  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  as  may  be  readily  proved  by  removing 
alternate  sections  of  wood  from  the  stem  of  a  tree.  Prof. 
Lindley4  in  referring  to  the  functions  of  the  alburnum 
and  liber  in  trees,  says:  "  The  two  have  equally  important 
offices  to  perform;  the  alburnum  giving  strength  and 
solidity  to  the  stem  and  conveying  sap  upwards  ;  the 
liber  not  only  conveying  sap  downward,  but  covering  over 
the  alburnum,  protecting  if  from  the  air  and  enabling  it, 
to  form  without  interruption.  It  is  therefore  indispen- 
sable to  the  healthy  condition  of  plants  that  neither  the 
alburnum  nor  liber  should  be  injured.7' 

The  inner  layers,,  or  heart-wood,  of  trees  are  dead,  and 
they  may  be  removed  entirely  without  serious  injury  to 
the  living  parts,  as  often  occurs,  and  as  seen  in.  hollow 
treejj,  which  sometimes  live  for  centuries  in  "this  condi- 
tion, new  layers  of  alburnum  being  annually  added  to 
the  outside.  It  is  now  quite  generally  conceded  that  the 
annual  increase  in  the  diameter  of  exogenous  stems  is  due 
to  the  multiplication  of  the  cells  of  the  cambium  layer, 
and  the  material  from  which  they  are  formed — or  at  least 
the  greater  part  of  it — descends  in  the  bark  ;  tiut  there 
have  been,  and  still  are,  vegetable  physiologists  who  deny 
the  existence  of  any  distinct  downward  flow  of  organiz- 
able  matter  through  the  liber.  Dr.  J.  M.  Schleiden,  in 
his  "  Principles  of  Botany,"  emphatically  denies  any  such 
movement  in  plants,  and  says  :  "As  water  is  continu- 
ally exhaled  by  plants  in  proportion  to  the  dryness,  mo- 
tion and  warmth  of  the  air,  so  the  sap  becomes  concen- 
trated, and  thus  interrupts  the  endosmatic  process  toward 
the  other  cells  ;  this  action  is  continued  naturally  down- 
ward toward  the  roots,  by  which  new  watery  and  unas- 
similated  fluids  are  absorbed.  If  this  stream  of  crude 
sap  is  artificially  interrupted  in  its  course  from  below 
upward,  the  sap  in  the  upper  part  becomes  more  concen- 


90  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

trated,  and  its  organizing  power  increased.  This  is  the 
simple  fact  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  those  phe- 
nomena which  are  brought  forward  to  support  the 
groundless  hypothesis  of  a  decending  bark  sap."  In 
another  place  he  says  :  "  When  an  Apricot  graft  grows 
from  the  trunk  of  a  Plum  tree  the  latter  is  naturally  and 
by  degrees  clothed  with  Apricot  wood,  for  out  of  the  same 
soil  an  Apricot  tree  would  merely  take  up  the  same  crude 
material  as  the  Plum  tree,"  etc.  But  those  who  oppose 
this  idea  of  a  downward  flow  of  organizable  sap  in  the 
liber  appear  to  have  overlooked  the  individuality  of  the 
functions  of  the  cells,  and  the  fact  that  while  one  set  or 
group  may  be  secreting  one  kind  of  substance,  or  per- 
forming certain  functions,  another  group  may  be  doing 
something  quite  different,  as  I  have  already  explained 
elsewhere. 

Practical  propagators  of  plants  know  that  the  cells  of 
the  stock  and  those  of  the  cion  always  remain  distinct 
in  each,  preserving  their  individual  type,  and  even  the 
old  and  excretory  bark  enclosing  them  retaining  its  pecu- 
liar original  characteristic.  Pears  grafted  on  Quince  roots 
never  change  the  latter  into  the  former,  and  we  may 
build  up  a  tree  of  alternate  sections  of  Pear,  Quince, 
Thorn  and  Medlar,  and  each  section  or  part  of  the  stem 
will  retain  its  individuality,  although  the  roots  may  be 
of  one  species  and  the  branches  and  leaves  of  another. 
The  cells  of  each  take  from  the  passing  crude  sap,  or 
descending  organizable  matter,  the  materials  needed  to 
build  up  and  retain  their  own  individual  structure. 

Jf  there  were  no  descending  organizable  sap  in  the 
liber  or  inner  bark,  then  the  girdling  of  trees  would  have 
no  more  than  a  temporary  ^effect,  upon  growth  $  but  the 
pioneers  in  our  American  forests  have  proved  to  us  that 
^o  remote  a. ring,  of  barj^and  the  mere  jsgvering  ojf  the 
outer  layer  of  alburnum  will  cause  the  death  of  any  kind 
of  tree  within  a  twelvemonth.  By  tins'  simple  process 


CIRCULATION  OF  SAP.  91 

the  upward  flow  of  the  crude  sap  j^  not  prevented,  for  it 
passes  freely  through  the  unsevered  "alburnum  layers, 
reaching  the  leaves  as  usual,  where  it  is  assimilated ;  but 
the  descent  of  the  organizable  matter  can  pass  no  further 
than  the  annular  incision  in  the  stem  ;  the  result  is 
that  none  reaches  the  roots,  the  latter  perish  in  conse- 


Fig.   42. — VARIGATED  RUSH. 

quenc^,  and  the  following  season  the  tree  is  dead — not  a 
-bud  on  either  root  or  branch  survives.  Those  species'. 
which  are  the  most  obstinate  in  producing  suckers  from 
their  roots  are  readily  killed  outjby.-so  simple  an  opera- 
tion as  girdling  in  late  winter  or  very  early  spring. 

Kinging^.or  the  removal  of  a  ring-like  piece  of  bark 
from  a  single  branch  of  a  fruit  tree,  or  cane  of  a  Grape- 


92  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

vine,  has  long  been  practised  for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing extra  large  specimens  of  jfrnit,  it  becoming  gorged 
with  organizable  matter,  which  is  prevented  from  passing- 
downward  on  account  of  the  removal  of  the  ring  of  bark. 
The  pojver  ojjQejj^oapgro^riaje^^fcaiji  elements  and 
not  others  "can  scarcelylBe  doubted,  ami otigti  we  know 
but  little  of  the  process,  but  it  is  through  the  individu- 
ality of  their  functions  that  they  are  enabled  to  take  from 
the  liquids  passing  through  them  those  materials  neces- 
sary for  their  own  growth,  allowing  others  to  pass  unap- 
propriated ;  thus  certain  groups  of  cells  assume  one  form, 
size,  color,  as  in  the  case  of  the  double  or  quadruple 
grafted  Pear  tree,  each  group  retaining  its  own  individu- 
ality to  the  end.  This  preservation  of  individual  charac- 
teristics of  cells^  may  not  only  be  seen  in  the  multiple 
steins  of  grafted  trees,  but  frequently  in  various  simple 
herbaceous  plants,  as  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the 
Japan  Zebra  Grass  (Eulalia),  and  in  the  Variegated  Rush 
(Scirpus),  shown  in  figure  42.  In  both  of  these  plants 
the  long,  slender  leaves  and  stems  are  composed  of  alter- 
nate sections  of  white  and  green  parts,  and  if  we  take  no 
account  of  any  downward  flow  of  organizable  matter,  and 
presume  that  the  crude  sap  is  assimilated  in  its  progress 
upward  through  the  leaves,  we  still  find  it  difficult  to 
explain  how  the  green  colored  liquids  can  pass  through 
the  white  parts  and  leave  no  stain  of  chlorophyll,  except 
upon  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  an  individuality  of 
action  in  the  various  groups  of  cells  of  the  leaves  which 
enables  them  to  retain  their  distinct  characteristics,  while 
all  are  drawing  nutrients  from  the  same  source  and 
through  the  same  set  of  vessels.  We  know  that  some 
such  action  takes  place  in  grafted  trees  with  stems  and 
roots  made  up  of  different  species.  Quince  roots  may 
imbibe  nutrients  from  the  soil,  while  Pear  leaves  may  as- 
similate them  ;  yet  each  remain  true  to  its  species  or  vari- 
ety. Conductibility  in  this  case  is  not  only  a  function  of 


CIRCULATION   OF   SAP.  93 

the  cells,  but  in  the  operation  a  kind  of  selection  or  choice 
is  made  of  materials  passing  through  them ;  but  this 
elective  power  appears  only  to  extend  to  those  elements 
•which  are  of  a  congenial  nature  to  the  whole  or  some 
part  of  the  plant,  for  when  certain  poisons  are  presented 
to  the  roots  or  leaves  they  are  unable  to  resist  them. 
This  act  of  non-resistance  does  not  prove  that  plants  have 
no  pow^gr  of  selection  pi  nutrients,  jgut, merely  thaFTney 
are  in^apaBle^of  resisting  certain  elements  which  are 
inimical  to  their  health  and  growth.  The  difference  in 
the  density  of  liquid  poisons_pr^se^t,ed.^tp_the_rj[)ot^  may 
also  have  some  influence  upon  the  elective  powers  ;  and 
it  is  well  known  that  some  mineral  poisons,  when  much 
diluted,  will  be  absorbed  by  plants  without  any  apparent 
injury,  while  stronger  solutions  will  cause  death,  as  they 
also  do  when  given  to  animals  in  large  doses.  Certain 
gases  are  also  highly  injurious  to  plants,  being  readily 
absorbed  by  both  roots  and  leaves.  Sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen gas,  says  Dr.  Balfour,  attacks  the  leaves  at  the  tips 
first,  gradually  extending  to  the  leaf-stalk,  which  would 
seem  to  show  that  it  followed  the  return  flow  of  sap. 
Sulphurous  acid  gas  is  highly  injurious  to  plants,  as 
many  a  gardener  has  learned  to  his  cost  through  the 
accidental  ignition  of  su'phur  in  houses  filled  with  plants. 
But  the  gas  which  most  interests  the  practical  cultivator 
of  plants  is  the  one  known  as  carbonic  acid  gas,  for  it  is 
from  this  that  the  carbon,  the  most  abundant  single 
element  of  plants,  is  obtained.  Carbon  also  makes  up 
some  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  bulk  of  the  ordinary 
plants  cultivated  for  food,  and  in  trees  the  proportion  is 
still  greater,  all  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
carbonic  acid  gas,  but  just  how  it  is  obtained  or  fixed  in 
the  form  of  plant  cells  has  been  a  mooted  question  among 
vegetable  physiologists  and  chemists  ever  since  they  began 
to  investigate  the  principles  of  growth  and  composition 
of  plants.  This  carbon  ghost  will  neither  remain  passive 


94  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

or  find  an  abiding  place  either  in  the  atmosphere  or  soil ; 
for  while  one  authority  allows  it  free  entrance  to  the 
roots,  another  is  equally  certain  that  it  only  finds  its  way 
into  the  plants  through  the  leaves.  In  a  recent  work  of 
Dr.  M.  T.  Masters,  in  speaking  of  root  action,  he  says  : 
"No  passage  of  acid  fluid  out  of  the  cell  takes  place, 
root  excretions  having  no  existence,"  etc.  But  in  another 
paragraph  on  the  same  page  he  says:  "On  the  other 
hand,  r,oots  do  not  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  nor  exhale 
oxygen  as  the  leaves  do  (in  the  sunlight),  but  they  do 
give  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  which,  with  the  aid  of  water, 
converts  the  insoluble  carbonates  of  the  soil  into  soluble 
Jncarbonutes,  and  exercise  a  similar  power  of  solution  in 
the  case  of  phosphates."  If  the  roots  "do  give  off  car- 
bonic acid  gas,"  it  is  certainly  by  an  "excretive"  action, 
which  the  author  utterly  denies  in  the  first  paragraph 
quoted.  In  describing  the  action  and  function  of  leaves 
he  says  :  "The  paramount  function  of  the  leaf  is  the 
absorption  and  assimilation  of  carbon.  Carbon,  as  such, 
does  not  exist  in  the  atmosphere,  unless,  indeed,  as  an 
impurity  in  the  air  of  towns,  and  is  a  very  prejudicial  one 
to  plants.  It  is  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas — a  com- 
bination of  carbon  and  oxygen — that  it  is  found  in  the 
atmosphere,  but  only  in  small  proportion  compared  with 
the  other  constituents.  In  the  plant,  carbon  exists  in 
much  larger  proportion  than  any  other  ingredient,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  water.  It  forms,  in  fact,  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  dry  matter  of  plants  left  behind  after  the 
water  and  gases  have  been  expelled  by  heat.  This  large 
quantity  of  carbon  has  to  be  taken  up  in  the  form  of 
carbonic  acid  by  the  leaves." 

There  can  be  no  question  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of 
Dr.  Master's  words,  for  they  are  direct  and  to  the  point 
— namely,  the  carbon  of  plants  is  derived  from  the  air 
and  through  the  leaves  only,  consequently  from  a  source 
where  this  important  element  is  the  least  abundant,  and, 


CIRCULATION"  OF  SAP.  95 

we  may  say,  so  largely  diluted  that  our  chemists  tell  us 
that  it  averages  only  about  one  twenty-five  hundredth 
part  of  the  bulk  of  the  atmosphere,  while  it  abounds  in 
many  soils,  springs,  brooks,  wells,  caverns  in  «the  humus 
of  forests,  besides  occurring  combined  with  bases,  form- 
ing carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  strontia,  baryta, 
as  well  as  in  the  various  oxides  of  metals,  some  of  which 
are  always  found  in  fertile  soils.  The  position  which 
Dr.  Masters  takes  in  regard  to  the  source,  as  well  as  the 
way  in  which  carbonic  acid  is  utilized  by  plants,  does  not 
differ  essentially  from  that  held  by  several  other  Euro- 
pean botanists,  but  he  gives  the  theory  in  a  better  form 
than  I  have  seen  it  elsewhere. 

Dr.  Balfour,  however,  a  very  eminent  English  author- 
ity on  vegetable  physiology,  says  that  "carbonic  acid  is 
readily  taken  up,  either  in  its  gaseous  state  by  the  leaves, 
or  in  combination  with  water  hy  the  rp.ots,"  We  cer- 
tainly can  scarcely  conceive  of  any  inherent  power  of 
choice  so  potent  in  the  roots  as  to  enable  them  to  reject 
this  gas  which  is  so  necessary  to  their  health  and  growth, 
and  it  is  well  known  to  be  far  more  abundant  in  the  soil 
about  the  roots  than  in  the  atmosphere.  In  a  recent 
(1885)  edition  of  the  "Manual  of  Agriculture,"  by  Geo. 
B.  Emerson,  I  find  the  following  in  relation  to  this  sub- 
ject:  "  Carbonic^ a^cidjs  the  most  indispensable  and 
abundant  article  of  the  toodjDf  all  plants..  It  enters  the 
plant  dissolved  in  water,  and  either  remains  in  that  state, 
or  the  vital  action  of  the  plant,  in  the  light  of  the  sun, 
decomposes  the  acid  and  throws  back  most  of  the  oxygen 
into  the  atmosphere,  but  retains,  a  portion  which  per- 
forms important  offices,  and  also  retains  the  carbon. 
This  forms  the  solid  parts  of  every  plant." 

Among  men  who  combine  science  with  practice  the 
foregoing  is  the  most  generally  accepted  theory  of  the 
manner  in  which  plants  obtain  the  great  bulk  of  their 
carbon.  It  is  open  to  some  objection,  but  it  will  mislead 


96  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

no  one  in  the  management  of  plants.  All  practical  cul- 
tivators of  plants  recognize  the  great  value  of  c^rbona.- 
ceovis  matter.,  not  only  as  found  spread  over  the  surface 
of  the  easth  in  forests,  prairies  and  plains,  but  in  the 
manures  applied  to  soils  from  which  it  has  been  exhausted 
by  long-  cultivation  or  otherwise.  It  is  not  denied,  how- 
ever, that  plants  do  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  through11 
their  twigs,  buds,  leaves,  and  other  appendages  ;  in  fact, 
as  they  take  in  moisture  through  these  parts,  other  nu- 
trients must  also  pass  in  combination  with  it,  as  well  as 
carbonic  acid  gas,  bo^t  in  infintesimal  quantities  compared 
with  the  amount  absorbed  by  the  roots. 

In  this  respect  plants  do  not  differ  greatly  from  ani- 
mals, for  it  is  well  known  that  nutrients  and  poisons  may 
be  conveyed  Jty  air  to  the  blood  through  the  lungs,  or 
they  may  be  thrown  directly  into  the  system  ,by  hypo- 
dermic injections  through  the  skin,;  that  a  starving  man 
would  liye  longer  in  an  atmosphere  laden  with  the  fumes 
of  cooking  meat  than  in  one  from  which  such  fumes 
were  entirely  absent ;  .still,  few  of  us  would  care  to  .take 
all  our  beefsteak  in  thjs  way. 

I  have  been  prompted  to  refer  to  this  subject  of  the 
sources  of  carbon  in  plants  somewhat  at  length,  because 
it  has  of  late  become  quite  a  habit  among  writers  on  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  topics  to  ignore  the  v^alue^of 
carbonaceous  matter  in  the  soil,^  and  some  go  so  far  as  to 
doubt  the  value  of  ammonia  and  other  sources  of  nitro- 
gen ;  in  fact,  they  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  with  air 
and  water,  and  a  few  broken  rocks  for  an  anchorage,  the 
husbandman  will  be  enabled  to  produce  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth  in  plants  of  oil  kinds.  But  it  will  be  well 
for  the  cultivators  of  plants  to  continue  the  practice  of 
applying  liberal  quantities  of  carbonaceous, and  nitro- 
genous manures  to  their  soils,  trusting  to  these  to  supply 
the  greater  part  of  the  nutrients,  and  these  tljrough  the 
roots  of  plants,  or  by  placing  the  food  where  it  will  be 
most  likely  to  be  utilized. 


CIRCULATION  OF  SAP.  9? 

have  various  Junctions ;  they  permit  of  the 
evaporation  of  superfluous  moisture  and  gases,  as  well 
as  the  absorption  of  the  same  from  the  air, -as  conditions 
a^c  changed.  So  long  as  the  leaves  are  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  .moisture  through  the  roots  and  stems  they 
wall  take  none  from  the  air,  but  let  the  supply  be  cut  off 
from  below  and  have  it  presented  to  the  leaves,  and  a 
reverse  action  coon  follows.  We  may  test  this  reverse 
movement  very  readily  with  leaves  and  twigs  cut  from 
growing  plants,  and  at  the  same  time  it  may  be  seen  that 
the  absorption  of  moisture  varies  under  different  circum- 
stances and  conditions.  l!]ie  force  exercised  by  the  roots 
is  by  far  the  greatest ;  next  in  degree  is  the  absorption  of 
liquids  by  the  exposed  cells  in  the  severed  stem,  and  last 
and  least  through  thejoores  or  stomata  of  the  leaves.  Of 
the  many  experiments  I  have  made  in  investigating  the 
movements  of  liquids  in  plants,  I  may  refer  to  one  which 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  this  question  of  absprption  of 
moisture  through  the  stomata  of  the  leaves.  VI  cut  off 
small,  tender  branches  and  leaves  of  various  plants,  such 
asAchyranthus,  Coleus,  Verbenas,  Abutilons,  etc.,  spread 
them  all  out  on  a  shelf  in  the  sun,  where  they  soon  began 
to  flag,  and  after  all  had  become  fully  wilted,  the  severed 
ends  of  one-half  of  each  variety  and  kind  were  dipped  in 
melted  wax  in  order  to  hermetically  seal  up  the  exposed 
cells.  Then  all  were  placed  in  a  box  and  lightly  sprinkled 
with  pure  water.  At  the  end  of  twelve  hours  they  were 
taken  out  and  carefully  examined,  and  the  difference  in 
the  condition  of  the  sealed  and  unsealed  was  quite  ap- 
parent ;  those  with  exposed  severed  cells  had  fully  revived, 
while  many  of  the  others  were  still  limp,  but  all  showed 
signs  of  recovery.  The  cuttings  were  all  replaced  in  trie" "box 
and  left  there  another  twelve  hours  ;  then  all  were  found 
to  have  recovered  and  to  be  as  fresh  as  when  first  taken 
from  the  parent  plants.  This  experiment  shows  that 
absorption  of  moisture  may  take  place  through  the 


98  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

severed  cells  of  the  stems,  leaf-stalks,  and  also  through 
the  stomata,  under  varying  conditions  and  circumstances. 

Dr.  G.  Hart  wig,  in  "  Harmonies  of  Nature,"  says  : 
"  The  stomata  are  destined  to  admit  air,  not  water,  which 
by  drenching  the  leaf  would  entirely  interrupt  the  process 
of  respiration."  But  Hugo  yon  Mohl,  a  very  able  inves- 
tigator in  the  structure  of  plants,  has  shown  very  clearly 
that  the  stomata  open  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and 
close  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  as  may  be  readily  verified  by 
any  one  who  will  examine  them  under  a  glass  of  high 
magnifying  power. 

Gardeners  utilize  this  power  of  severed  Qeljs  to  absorb 
moisture  and  nutriment,  especially  in  propagating  plants 
by  cuttings  of  the  young  and  immature  parts,  or  by  what 
are  technically  termed  "green  cuttings."  In  employing 
such  cuttings  it  is  well  for  the  propagator,  to  keep  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  severed  and  exposed  cells  at  the 
base  of  the  cuttings  cannot  resist  the  noxious  properties 
which  may  be  presented  to  them  in  liquids  with  the  same 
power  as  roots,  hence  the  greater  necessity  of  selecting 
pure  and  innocuous  materials  in  which  to  plant  the  cut- 
tings while  producing  roots.  I  have  kept  the  roots  of 
such  coarse  celled  and  rank  growing  plants  as  the  Calla 
(Ricliardia)  submerged  in  a  solution  of  Madder  and  other 
vegetable  dyes  for  weeks  at  a  time  without  detecting  any 
indications  of  their  absorption  by  the  plants,  although 
the  outer  bark,  or  epidermis,  of  the  roots  and  smaller  root- 
lets were  soon  colored  ;  but  if  a  Icgf-sJ^alk  of  one  of  these 
plants  is  cut  off  and  the  severed  end  set  in  the  dye,  some 
of  the  coloring  matter  will  ^spon  be  absorbed  and  easily 
traced  upward  to  a  greater  or  less  distance. 

That  the  imj^ibtion  ofjiquicts  through  the  roots,  as  well 
as^  the  severed  jceljs  of  a  green  cutting,  is  in^^rtdue 
to  leaf  Diction  can  scarcely  be  questioned,  but  it  is  not  the 
only  fcirce  that  aids  in  the  ascent  of  the  sap  of  plants, 
for  absorption  will  occur  in  the  absence  of  leaves  and  even 


CIRCULATION   OF   SAP.  99 

in  the  dead  tissues  of  plants,  but  with  less  force  than  in 
living  ones. 

^  plants  that  have  jio  distinct  leaves,  like  most  of  the 
Cactuses  and  Stapelias,  tjie  epidermis  of  the  stems  per- 
fprms~tne  functions  of  true  leaves  in  other  kinds  of  plants, 
but  just  what  these  functions  are  has  not  as  yet  been 
fully  determined,  although  many  plausible  theories  of 
leaf  action  have  been  given  by  vegetable  physiologists  and 
chemists,  but  as  they  do  not  agree  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  there  is  not  only  some  mystery  surrounding  this 
matter,  but  that  there  is  still  something  to  be  learned 
about  leaf  action  as  well  as  the  chemical  changes  which 
take  place  during  the  process  of  assimilation.  Plantp, 


animals,  to  a  certain  degree  posses^  an  inherent^owe/   * 
apitmg  themselves  to  varying  conditions,  not  being  M 

controlled  ^By'  such  Tnvariabie  laws  that  their  lives  are 
jeopardized  by  every  change  of  temperature,  hygromet- 
rical  condition  of  the  earth  and,  air,  or  variations  of  light  , 
and  shade.  It  can  be  readily  demonstrated  that  sun- 
light is  necessary  for  the  production  of  chlorophyll,  or 
the  green,  coloring  matter  in  the  leaves,  but  it  is  no 
more  so  than  for  the  depositing  or  production  of  other 
natural  colors  of  the  leaves,  and  there  are  no  good  reasons 
for  supposing  that  the  green  matter  in  the  leaf  of  the 
common  Beech  tree  is  of  any  more  importance  or 
obtained  from  a  different  source  than  the  r^d  .pigment  in 
the  Igaf  of  the  Purple  5£§£h,  or  the  colors  in  the  leaves  of 
Coleiis^efscTiaffeUii.  Neither  will  it  be  produced  in  the 
absence  of  light  ;  still,  the  4ee£ej&t  greert  in  the  foliage  of 
plants  in  general  is  not  to  be  founo.  in  countries  where 
there  is  the  most  sunlight,  but  in  those  where.there  is 
Alternate  light  an  4  shade,  w^itlj,  a  decided  preponderance 
of  the  latter.  In  the  deep  shade  of  our  forests  the 
Kalmias,  Rhododendrons  and  Hollies  not  only  thrive 
best,  but  it  is  in  such  situations  their  leaves  assume  the 
deepest  shade  of  green.  Aiternate^junlight^and  shade, 


100  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

\vith  abundant  moisture,  are  the  requisites  for  coloring 
the  leavesof  plants  a  deep  green,  and  in  Ireland,  long 
known  as  the  "  Emerald  Isle/7  they  do  not  have  half  the 
sunlight  we  do,  while  under  the  almost  cloudless  skies 
on  our  Western  plains  the  foliage  of  plants  have  a  sickly 
yellowish  or  grayish  green. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
SEX  AND  FERTILIZATION. 

At  what  stage  in  the  evolution  of  plants  differentiation 
of  sex  becomes  a  distinctive  characteristic,  has  not  been 
fully  determined.  But  from  what  we  know  of  their 
development,  it  is  quite  evident  that  (Ji§tinQt  sexual 
.organs  are  the  result  of  a  ^progressive  movement  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher  and  more  complex  organisms. 
Nothing  like  sexual  organs  have  been  discovered  in  the 
simple  one-celled  plants,  or  even  among  those  much  higher 
in  the  scale,  like  the  Mushrooms,  Mosses  and  Lichens,  and 
even  in  the  Ferns  and  other  cryptogamous  plants  the 
sexual  organs  are  not  clearly  defined,  although  in  some 
they  are  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  utilized  in  what  is 
called  cross-fertilization  or  hybridizing  of  species.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  in  the  lower  forms  of  plants  the  con- 
jugation of  the  sexes  occurs  by  a  simple  coalescence  of 
cells,  somewhat  as  two  drops  of  water,  brought  in  contact 
Ojmte  and  become  one.  But  as  the  practical  propagator 
of  plants  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  investigate  the 
sexes  of  the  lower  orders,  they  may  be  passed  over  here 
without  further  attention. 

In  a  large  majority  of  the  plants  under  cultivation  the 
sexual  organs  are  sufficiently  distjiictand  conspicuous  to 
be  readily  examined  and  manipmated,  whenever  there  is 


SEX  AND   FERTILIZATION.  101 

an  occasion  to  interfere  with  the  natural  processes  of  re- 
production, {n  a  state  of  nature,  the  sexes  are  gener- 
ally placed  in  positions  favorable  to  direct  intercourse, 
either  by  contact,  or  through  natural  vehicles,  for  the 
transmission  of  pollen  from  the  male  to  the  female  organs. 
If  the  sexes  are  widely  separated  on  different  plants,  or 
on  different  parts  of  the  same  plant,  wind  and  insects, 
either  or  both,  become  the  n^edia  for  transporting  pollen, 
and  every  person  who  is  at  all  observing,  and  takes  an 
interest  in  such  matters,  must  not  only  have  noticed  the 
clouds  of  yellow  dust  blown  from  Pine,  Chestnut,  and 
similar  kinds  of  trees,  but  also  the  pollen-laden  bees  and 
other  insects  that  pass  from  flower  to  flower,  in  search  of 
honey  or  whatever  may  serve  them  for  food  and  other 
purposes. 

While  in  the  larger  majority  of  plants  both  anthers 
and  pollen-grains  are  of  a  yellow  or  yellowish-white 
color,  still  there  are  many  exceptions,  and  red,  brown, 
blue  and  other  shades  of  color  are  seen  in  the  pollen  even 
among  the  plants  of  the  same  family  or  genus. 

In  some  plants  there  appears  to  be  considerable 
mechanical  force  required  for  the  proper  distribution  of 
the  pollen;  this  is  exhibited  in  a  peculiar  manner  in  the  na- 
tive Kalmias.  In  these  plants  the  stamens  are  so  arranged 
that  they  are  bent  back  with  the  expansion  of  the  flower, 
and  held  in  this  position  for  several  days,  and  when  re- 
lieved by  the  petals  they  spring  back  to  the  center,  strik- 
ing the  stigma  with  considerable  force,  the  anther  cells 
bursting  at  the  same  time  and  widely  scattering  the 
pollen.  The  position  and  form  of  the  stamens  in  the 
flower  of  the  Kalmia  are  shown,  greatly  magnified,  in 
figure  43.  In  some  the  female  organs  are  shorter  and 
placed  below  the  male,  the  pollen  dropping  from  the 
anthers  upon  the  stigmas;  or  in  drooping  flowers,  like  the 
Fuchsia,  the  pistils  may  be  many  times  longer  than  the 
stamens,  but  if  extending  below  them  they  receive  the 


102  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

pollen  as  it  falls  from  the  anthers  above.  There  are 
almost  as  many  different  ways  in  which  the  ovule  is 
fertilized  as  there  are  different  plants.  The  stamens  and 
pistHSTlare  also  of  different  size  and  form,  and  in  some 
plants,  as  in  the  Conifers,  Palms,  etc.,  the  pistils  are 
entirely  wanting^ the  pollen  coming  in  direct  contact 
with  the  exposed  ovule.  But  however  variable  the  sexes 
or  form  of  the  sexnal  organs  in  the  higher  orders  of 
plants,  their  functions  are  very  nearly  identical,  and  in 
performing  the  operation  of  artificial  fertilization  we  pro- 
ceed"!!! 'about  the  same  manner  with  all,  merely  interfer- 


.   43.  —  FLDWEK  OP  KALMIA  LATIFOLIA,  ENLARGED. 


ing  with  nature  sufficiently  to  produce  varying  results. 
if  both  male  and  female  organs  are  present  in  the  same 
flower,  we  remove  the  former  in  order  to  prevent  them 
from  performing  the  operation  for  which  they  were  in- 
tended by  nature,  and  then  introduce  pollen  from  some 
other.  closely  allied  plant  to  "fertilize  the  ovules.  But 
whero  the  sexes  are  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant 
or  on  different  plants,  we  have  pjily  to  protect  the  female 
organs  against  the  visits  of  insects,  or  contact  of  pollen 
transported  by  the  wind,  and  then  introduce  that  which 
we  desire  should  perform  the  act  of  fertilization.  For 


SEX   AXD 


instance,  if  we  wish  to  produce  a  cross  or  hybrid  plant 
between  the  common  White  Lily   (lilium  candidum), 


Fig.   44.— LILIUM  CANDIDUM. 


figure  44,  and  some  other  species  or  variety,  we  w_atcji 
f of^ _the jo^eningof Jhe  flowers  and  exgansipn_of  the 

petals,  A  ;   then  we  cut  oft^  the   anthers,  B,  to  prevent 


104  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

self-fertilizatioa^  jliT^a^lithej^^  them  falling 

upon  the  female  organ  or  sii^maT^^^^tKen  procure 
pollen  from  the  flowers  of  the  other  variety  or  species, 
and  apply  it  to  the  stigma  of  the  first,  or  \Vhite  Lily.  The 
stigma,  when  in  the  proper  condition  for  fertilization,  is 
coated  with  a  viscid  substance  to  which  the  pollen  grains 
will  adhere  quite  firmly,  consequently  there  is  little 
danger  of  their  removal  while  handling  the  flower.  ^To 
prevent  insects  from  visiting  the  flowers,  and  interfering 
with  our  operations,  the  flowers  should  be^nclose^in  bags 
made  of  muslin,  mosquito  netting,  or  some  similar  material 
soon  after  opening,  and  kejDt  enclosed  until  fertilization 
is  assured  ;  then  removed  to  relieve  them  from  further 
restraint.  It  is  always  Advisable  to  repeat  the  application 
of  pollen,  because  the  first  may  not  "take,"  owing  to  the 
immaturity  of  the  stigma,  pollen,  however,  is  not  such 
a  delicate  material  that  its  potency  is  readily  destroyed 
by  rough  handling,  and  that  produced  by  some  kinds  of 
plants  may  be  preserved  in  good  condition  far  use  several 
days,  or  even  weeks,  if  excluded  from  the  air.  This  fact 
should  be  kept  in  mind,  for  it  often  occurs  that  the  plant 
from  which  we  desire  to  obtain  pollen  blooms  in  ad- 
yance  of  the  one  on  which  we  desire  to  use  it. 

In  the  application  of  pollen  a  small  camel's  hair  pencil 
is  the  most  convenient  implement,  but  where  the  anthers 
are  large,  as  in  the  Lily,  a  pair  of  forceps,  or  even  the 
fingers,  may  be  used^for  trajigferrjng  it  torn  one,  jDlapI^ 
tjiestigrnn  of  another. 

TH^polJen  grains  plaQgd^on  thejstigma  ^burst^opep  and 
discharge  their  contents  upon~iC  where  they  may  be  said 
to  germinate,  sen^l^g  down  lon^  flexible,  filarnfints  or 
'<pQ^eB^Jbu^es5"  tjirpujgh  the  loose  tissues  of  t\e  stigma 
and  style  to  the  ovary  or  true  seed-vessels,  where  the 
completion  of  the  act  of  fertilization  takes  place.  The 
exact  nature  of  this  act  is  not.  fully  known,  but  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  operation  is  as  stated,  as  may  be 


SEX   ASTD   FERTILIZATION.  105 

determined  by  dissecting  the  stigma  and  style  at  vari- 
ous stages  of  the  growth  of  the  pollen  tubes. 

Prof.  Sachs,  in  referring  to  the  fertilization  of  seeds, 
says:  "  Sijice  every  ovule  requires^Qn^^oJJ^i^tuJ^  for  its 
fertilization,  the  number  of  tubes. vyTnch  outer  the  ovary 
depends,  speaking  generally,  011  the  number  of  the 
ovules"  contained  in  it ;  the  number  of  pollen  tubes  is, 
however,  usually  larger  than  that  of  the  ovules ;  where 
these  latter  are  very  numerous,  the  number  of  pollen 
tubes  is  therefore  also  very  large,  as  in  the  Orchideae, 
where  they  may  be  detected  in  the  ovary,  even  by  the 
naked  eye,  as  a  shining,  white,  silky  bundle. " 

\yhile  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  each  ovule  must — except 
in  rare  instances — come  in  contact  with  a  pollen  tube  in 
order  to  be  fertilized,  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  or  prob- 
able that  a  distinct  and  separate  tj^jbe  or  filament  starts 
from  the  pollen  on  the  ctigma,  thence  passing  through 
the  style  to  eaclJ  ovule  to  be  fertilized,  especially  in  those 
plants  .where  there  are  many  seeds  produced  in  a  seed- 
vessel,,  as  in  the  Lilies,  Mallows,  etc.  But  instead  of  the 
multiplicity  of  pollen  tubes  that  would  be  required  if 
one  was  formed  for  each  ovule,  several  ovules  .become 
attached  to  the  side  otone  pollen  tube  as  it  passes  length- 
wise through  the  carpels.  As  the  seed  grows  or  enlarges 
the  little  branch  of  the  tube  can  be  readily  seen.  Where 
the  pistils  correspond  in  number  with  the  cells  in  the 
seed-pod,  as  in  the  Abutilons,  one  pollen  tube  suffices  for 
the  fertilization  of  the  two, to  six  or  more  ovules  in  each  of 
the  eight  to  twelve  loculicidal  cells  of  our  common  culti- 
vated varieties.  In  some  of  the  Malvaceae,  there  are  a 
greater  number  of  pistils,  or  at  least  branches  of  the 
style  and  stigma,  than  there  are  cells  of  the  ovary  or 
even  ovules ;  consequently,  if  each  stigma  produced  a 
pollen  tube,  they  must  either  coalesce  in  their  growth  or 
some  of  them  become  abortive. 

[n  such  plants  as. the  Strawberry,  Rose  and   Indian 

— ^"""^  ^x*—    n  -**"^ 


106 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Corn,,  and  closely  allied  plants,  there  is  one  pistil  for  each, 
ovule  or  seed- vessel,  and  more  than  one  pollen  tube  would 

be  an  entirely  superfluous 
production,  iience  we  find 
only  one.  in  each.  If  a 
pistil  is  destroyed  the 
ovule  at.  its  bjase  remains 
unfertilized,  andjio.  grain 
or  §eed  is.  produced,  and 
where  a  few  of  the  pistils 
are  fertilized  and  the 
others  not,  the  result  on 
an  ear  of  Corn  will  resem- 
ble the  one  shown  in.fig;? 
ur€^45,,  the  grains  on  it 
varying  in  number  with 
the  number  of  pistils  fer- 
tilized. It  is  only  about 
sixty  years  (1823)  since 
PrQf.  Amici,  an  Italian 
botanist,  discovered  the 
pollen  .  tubes,  and  this 
opened  a  new  field  for 
investigation,  which  was 
soon  occupied  by  some  of 
the  most  eminent  botan- 
ists of  Europe.  Previous 
to  the  discovery  of  Amici, 
the  process  by  which  the 
ovules  were  fertilized  was 
unknown.  Some  vegeta- 
ble physiologists  supposed 
that  the  pollen  grains 
passed  bodily  through  the 
pistils  to  the  ovary — an  erroneous  idea  which  still  pre- 
vails among  certain  horticulturists  of  the  present  day. 


Fig.  45.—  IMPERFECTLY  FERTILIZED 
EAR  OF  COHN. 


SEX   AND   FERTILIZATION.  107 

When  the  ovule  of  one  plant  is  fertilized  by  the  pollen 
of  another,  the  seed  resulting  therefrom  should,  as  a 
natural  result,  produce  a  plant  intermediate  between  the 
male  and  female  parent,  but  it  is  seldom,  that  both 
parents^ossess  equal  potency  in  transmitting  their  own 
incTfviduaT  characteristics  to  their  offspring.  For  instance, 
we  might  be  successful  in  fertilizing  the  ovules  of  the 
White  Lily  with  pollen  taken  from  one  of  the  many  yel- 
low or  red  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  yet  the  plants 
raised  from  the  cross-bred  seed  may  all  resemble  the 
female  parent  more  than  the  male.  This  alone  would 
not  prove  that  the  artificial  fertilization  had  failed,  but 
merely  shows  that  the  influence  of  the  male  parent  was  less 
potent  in  transmitting  its  characteristics  to  the  offspring 
than  the  female.  A  second  generation  of  seedlings 
from  the  cross-bred  or  hybrid  plants  may  show  more  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  staminate  than  the  pistillate, 
or  the  reverse  of  those  of  the  first  generation.  It  may 
also  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  experimenting  with 
w;ld  plants,  or  those  recently  introduced  into  cultivation, 
we  have  to  contend  with  inherited  characteristics  acquired 
by  close  interbreeding  through  an  unknown  number  of 
generations,  and  these  have  become  so  fixed  in  vegetable 
structure,that  introduced  disturbing  causes  have,  at  first, 
but  a  slight  influence  in  producing  any  very  pronounced 
change  in  form  or  structure  of  offspring.  fcJtiJL,  as  a  rule 
we  expect  the  offspring  of  cross-fertilixed  seed  will  show 
the  effect  by  varying  more  or  less  from  the  parent  type, 
and  when  once  a  species  commences  to  vary,  as  a  result 
of  artificial  causes,  it  becomes  quite  difficult  to  determine 
the  limits. 

In  all  of  our  operations  in  transferring  the  pollen  of 
one  plant  to  the  stigma  of  another,  we  proceed  in  very 
much  the  same  way  as  in  the  cross-fertilization  of  the 
Lily,  only  varying,  the  operation  to  correspond  with  the 
variation  in  the  structure  of  the  flowers  of  different  kinds. 


108  PEOPAGATKW   OF  PLANTS. 

In  some  instances  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  a  part, 
or  force  open  the  petals  or  other  organs  that  envelop 
those  to  be  operated  upon.  It  is  also  advisable,  in  many 
instances,  to  anticipate  nature  in  such  operations  by  a 
few  hours,  or  even  days,  and  place  the  pollen  in  a  posi- 
tion where  it  will  be  utilized  by  the  stigma  when  re- 
quired. 

In  crossing  and  hybridizing  the.  Grape,  it  is  n  common 
practice  to  anticipate  nature  by  several  hours,  because 
its  flowers  do  not  expand  like  those  of  the  Lily,  Rose  and 
similar  plants,  but  instead,  the  petals  cohere  to  one 
another  at  the  top,  breaking  loose  at  the  base,  and  are 
then  forced  upward  by  the  elongation  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils,  as  shown  in  figure  46,  A9  the  petals  being  thrown 


Fig.  46.— FLOWERS  OF  THE  GRAPE. 

off  in  the  form  of  a  cap.  The  five  stamens  then  expand, 
as  shown  in  figure  46,  J}t  these  surrounding  the  pistil, 
C.  The  anthers  should  be  immediately  removed  with 
a  pair  of  small  and  sharp-pointed  scissors,  leaving  them 
as  seen  in  the  figure  at  D.  In  the  illustration,  figure 
46,  the  Grape  flowers  are  shown  somewhat  enlarged. 
Before  commencing  to  operate  upon  an  immature  cluster, 
it  is  well  to  thin  out  the  undeveloped  flowers,  not  only  to 
facilitate  manipulation,  but  also  to  prevent  the  crowding 
of  the  fruit  when  fully  grown.  An  immature  cluster  of 
flowers  thus  prepared  must  be  closely  examined  from  day 
to  day,  and  so  soon  as  the  petals  break  loose  from  their 
base  they  should  be  carefully  thrown  off  with  the  point 
of  a  knife  or  other  sharp-pointed  implement,  and  the 
anthers  removed  as  directed.  Pollen  may  be  immediately 


SEX   AND   FERTILIZATION. 


109 


placed  on  the  stigma  or  the  operation  deferred  for  a  few 
hours,  but  it  is  better  to  apply  it  as  soon  as  the  cap  is  re- 
moved, as  the  minute  grains  will  usually  adhere  and  be  in 
position  for  absorption,  or,  more  properly,  germination, 
when  required.  As  the  flowers  do  not  all  open  at  the 
same  time  the  cluster  may  have  to  be  operated  upon  for 
several  days  in  succession,  and  when  applying  pollen  to 
those  recently  opened  it  is  well  to  touch  the  stigma  of 
those  operated  upon  the  previous  day  with  fresh  pollen, 

in  order  to  increase  the 
chances  of  success.  Re- 
peat these  operations  until 
all  the  flowers,  or  as  many 
as  may  be  required,  are 
fertilized,  and  then  re- 
move all  *  that  remain 
unopened.  Tke  cluster 
should  be  protected  by. 
enclosing  it  in  a  bag  made 
of  some  kind  of  thin 
fabric  like  Swiss  muslin 
or  mosquito  netting,  for 
if  some  such  covering  is 
not  used,  insects  may  visit 
the  flowers,  and  interfere 
with  our  work.  When 
the  Grapes  are  ^ipe  they 
should  be  gathered,  the  seeds  removed  and  planted  in  the 
usual  manner.  In  operating  on  the  Grape  as  described,  it 
is  presumed  that  the  flowers  are  perfect,  containing  both 
stamens  and  pistils  as  are  usually  found  in  the  common 
wild  and  cultivated  varieties.  But  among  the  species  of 
the  Grape  indigenous  to  North  America,  an  occasional 
plant  is  found  bearing  both  perfect  and  imperfect  flowers, 
wljile  others  produce  only  staminate  flowers,  the  pistils 
[nffmidevelqped  or  deformed.  When  perfect  and  im- 


fc.  47. 

IMPERFECT  BUNCH  OF  GRAPES. 


110  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

perfect  flowers  exist  in  the  same  cluster,  the  bunches  of 
fruit  will  be  equally  irregular,  as  shown  in  figure  47,  from 
the  "  Grape  Culturist,"  page  14.  But  on  vines  bearing  only 
staminate  flowers,  or  those  with  fully  developed  stamens 
and  deformed  pistils,  no  fruit  is  possible  or  is  ever  pro- 
duced. There  are  many  Vines  of  this  kind  to  be  found 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  some  very  old  ones 
have  been  preserved  more  as  a  curiosity  than  for  intrinsic 
value.  In  the  Spring  of  1860  I  saw  one  of  these  stam- 
inate vines  in  the  grounds  of  T.  S.  Kennedy,  Esq.,  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  which  was  then  supposed  to  be  over  seventy- 
five  years  old,  and  although  it  bloomed  freely  almost 
every  spring,  it  had  never  been  known  to  produce  a  fruit, 
its  flowers,  like  others  of  this  sex,  exhaling  a  fragrance 
somewhat  like  that  of  the  Mignonette. 

But  while  occasional  abnormal  forms  are  to  be  found 
among  wild  plants  of  all  classes,  orders  and  genera,  they 
may  be  considered  as  exceptions  to  a  general  rule,  while 
among  cultivated  plants  it  is  almost  the  reverse,  for  sup- 
pressed, deformed  or  enormously  developed  sexual  organs 
and  malformations  of  the  various  parts  and  appendages 
are  to  be  met  with  almost  everywhere.  In  a  strict  botan- 
ical sense,  all  such  variations  from  normal  types  are 
monstrosities,  and  yet  double  flowers,  seedless  fruits, 
misshaped  and  discolored  foliage  are  greatly  prized  and 
usually  considered  in  the  light  of  valuable  acquisitions. 
Owing  to  this  wide  departure  from  normal  types,  as  seen 
in  all  classes  of  cultivated  plants,  it  would  require  far  too 
much  of  the  space  at  my  command  to  give  full  and  defi- 
nite directions  £or  crossing  and  hybridizing  the  vast 
number  of  different  species  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
various  classes,  or  even  the  members  of  some  of  the  larger 
families.  But  I  may  remark,  in  a  general  way,  that  when 
a  person  possesses  the  inclination  to  perform  such  opera- 
tions, he  will  naturally  begin  to  observe,  the  form,  struc- 
ture and  habits  of  plants,  and  soOn,  with  the  aid  of  some 


SEX   AND   FERTILIZATION.  Ill 

elementary  or  advanced  botanical. treatise,  be  able  to 
ijistinguish  the  sexual  ^and  other  organs  and  parts  of 
flowers,  and  when  a  person  has  acquired  this  knowledge 
t|irough. actual  observation  and  study,  that  which  may 
have  been  previously  obscure  will,  in  a  great  measure, 
become  plain  and  easily  understood.  Partly  or  wholly 
smothered  organs  will  be  relieved  by  removing,  entire 
or  in  part,  others  that  have  overgrown  and  shaded  them, 
as  is  frequently  practised  in  removing  the  abnormal  and 
highly-dejeloped  petals  of  double  flowers,  as  in  the  double 
Dahlias,  Chrysanthemums,  Asters,  and  other  plants  of 
the  Composite  Family. 

lUvthe  doubling  of  such  flowers  as  Fuchsias,  Carna- 
tions, Camellias,  Koses,  and  all  members  of  the  great 
Eose  Family ;  Apple,  Peach,  Plum,  Cherry,  Almond 
and  Quince,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Mallow  Family; 
Abutilon,  Hollyhock,  etc.,  the  additional  number  of 
petals  are  mainly  transformed  stamens,  and  the  metamor- 
phosis of  these  organs  can  be  readily  traced  in  their 
gradual  advance  from  the  single  to  the  double  form. 
There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  the 
multiplication  of  petals  is  a  distinct  process  from  that  in 
which  they  proceed  from  transformed  stamens  and  pistils. 
Sometimes  we  find  a  duplication  of  the  petals  in  the 
Hollyhock,  Rose  of  Sharon  and  Chinese  Hibiscus,  while 
the  sexual  organs  retain  their  normal  number  and  form. 
In  the  only  double  Abutilon  at  present  known  (Abutilon 
Thompsonii  pleno),  the  stamens  are  all  transformed  into 
irregularly  shaped  petals,  with  no  duplication  .of  the 
divisions  of  the  original  corolla  ;  but  a  plant  of  Afiutilon, 
tk  Mary  Miller,  "  in  my  greenhouse,  recently  produced  a 
flower  with  a  perfectly  duplicated  corolla,  or  a  semi-double 
flower,  showing  that  what  we  call  "doubling"  may  pro- 
ceed in  this  genus  from  both  multiplication  of  the  corolla 
and  the  transformation  of  the  stamens. 

In  some  plants,  like  the  Rose,  Fuchsias  and  Abutilon, 


112  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

the  pistils  in  the  center  of  the  flower  are  the  last  to  be 
effected  by  cultivation,  and  often  remain  in  a  condition 
to  perform  their  natural  functions  long  after  the  stamens 
have  changed  to  petals,  and  with  a  little  assistance,  to 
prevent  smothering  the  stigma,  may  be  readily  fertilized 
artifically,  and  fertile  seeds  produced  from  quite  double 
flowers.  There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  all  operations  of 
this  kind,  as  well  as  to  our  knowledge  of  vegetable  struc- 
tures, as,  for  instance,  we  occasionally  find  plants  which 
appear  to  have  perfect  sexual  organs,  and  yet  they  resist 
all  effort?  to  make  them  fruitful,  but  why  this  is  so  we 
are  unable  to  determine. 

LIMITS  OF  CROSS-FERTILIZATION.  —  The  limits  of 
artificial  fertilization  of  plants  have  never  been  deter- 
mined, and  they  only  can  be  through  the  aid  of  innumer- 
able and  oft-repeated  experiments,  and  if  we  could  decide 
what  is  possible  with  plants,  as  they  exist  at  this  time, 
new  forms  must  necessarily  appear  as  the  result  of  artifi- 
cial intermingling  of  species,  thereby  opening  ne\v  and 
at  present  unknown  fields  for  experiments  and  investiga- 
tions. In  the  ever-changing  phases  of  plant  life,  who 
can  say  that  the  impossible  of  to-day  will  not  be  possible 
to-morrow  or  a  few  years  hence  ? 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  xarieties  of  a  species 
may  be  cross-fertilized  far  more  readily  than  species  can 
be  hybridized.  The  distinction  between  the  offspring  of 
species,  and  varieties  is  not  so  generally  recognized  as  it 
should  be  among  cultivators  of  plants.  Correctly  speak- 
ing, a  li^brid  is  the  offspring  of  two  species.  For 
instance,  if  we  should  take  the  native  Apple  of  Europe 
(Pints  Malus),  which  is  the  parent  of  nearly  all  of  our 
cultivated  varieties,  and  the  American  Crab  Apple  (P, 
coronaria),  and  by  fertilizing  the  flo\vers  of  one  species 
with  pollen  from  the  other,  produce  a  plant  with  the 
characteristics  of  both  combined,  we  would  then  have  a 
proper  or  true  hybrid.  But  if  we  fertilize  the  flowers  of 


SEX   AND   FERTILIZATION.  113 

the  Baldwin  Apple  with  pollen  from  the  Porter,  or  any 
other  variety  of  the  same  species,  the  offspring  will  only 
be  a  cross-bred  variety,  and  in  this  kind  of  crossing  we 
only  intermingle  elements  that  may  have  been  inter- 
mingled many  times  before. 

True  hybrids  may  be  considered  as  forced  productions 
rarely  found  in  nature,  and  the  few  that  have  been  pro- 
duced without  the  assistance  of  man,  are  but  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  At  one  time,  and  that  not  many  years  ago, 
hybrids  among  cultivated  plants  were  so  rare  that  it  was 
thought  they  must  necessarily  be  barren,  or  nearly  so,  as 
was  supposed  to  be  the  case  among  hybrid  animals — the 
common  mule  or  offspring  of  the  ass  and  mare,  being  the 
accepted  type  of  such  animals  ;  but  not  only  has  the 
mule  been  known  to  breed,  but  many  of  the  hybrid 
plants  are  as  productive  as  either  of  their  parents.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  for  the  student  of  natural  history, 
it  is  frequently  very  difficult  to  determine  species  from 
varieties  among  both  plants  and  animals.  Every  collector 
in  any  branch  of  natural- history,  who  has  attempted  to 
arrange  his  specimens  in  the  order  laid  down  in  "  check 
lists,"  or  the  works  of  the  highest  authorities,  knows,  to 
his  cost,  how  frequently  he  is  compelled  to  re-arrange 
his  cabinet  to  meet  the  ever-changing  opinions  and  dis- 
coveries of  those  to  whom  he  has  looked  as  competent 
guides  in  such  matters.  If  he  seeks  specific  information 
that  will  enable  him  to  determine  what  is  or  is  not 'a 
true  species,  he  will  find  but  little  that  is  clear  and  defi- 
nite on  this  point.  Prof.  Asa  Gray  says  that  the  "idea" 
of  species  is  "  based  upon  a  succession  of  individuals,  each, 
deriving  its  existence,  with  all  its  peculiarities,  from  a 
similar  antecedent  one,  and  transmitting  its  form  and 
other  peculiarities  essentially  unchanged  from  generation 
to  generation.  By  species  we  mean  absolutely  the  type 
or  original  of  each  sort  of  plant,  or  animal,  thus  repro- 
duced by  a  perennial  succession  of  Jil^e  individuals,  or, 


114:  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

concretely,  the  species  is  the  sum  of  such  individuals." 
But  as  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  "type  or 
original"  of  what  we  now  call  a  species,  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult and  often  impossible  to  distinguish  theni  from 
varieties ;  or,  in  other  words,  where  there  are  various 
closely  allied  normal  or  wild  varieties,  each  extending 
over  extensive  areas  of  country,  or  even  when  they  are 
more  or  less  intermingled,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  deter- 
mine which  is  the  original  type  or  species.  Dr.  W.  B. 
Carpenter,  in  referring  to  this  subject  and  the  tendency 
of  some  species  to  run  into  spontaneous  variations,  for 
which  no  external  cause  will  account,  very  truly  says  : 
"  Hence,  in  discriminating  what  are  real  species  from 
what  are  simple  varieties,  the  botanist  is  treading  on  very 
insecure  ground,  until  he  has  ascertained,  for  every 
species,  its  tendency  to  run  into  varieties  of  form, 
whether  spontaneous  or  induced  by  change  of  external 
conditions.  His  greatest  difficulty  arises  from  those 
cases  in  which  have  arisen  what  are  termed  permanent 
varieties,  which  reproduce  themselves  with  the  same 
regularity  as  do  real  species."  It  may  be  said  on  this 
subject  that  the  most  thorough  and  experienced  investi- 
gators are  the  least  positive  in  determining  what  should 
or  should  not  be  called  a  species,  while  the  superficial 
writers  and  observers  are  usually  quite  ready  at  all  times 
to  decide  such  questions  to  their  own  satisfaction,  if  not 
to 'that  of  any  one  else. 

If  a  plant  in  its  wild  or  cultivated  state  reproduces 
itself  from  seed  with  slight  or  no  variation,  this  fact 
would  not  prove  it  to  be  a  distinct  species,  but  merely 
show  that  the  natural  forces  of  the  plant  were  very  nearly 
or  perfectly  balanced.  It  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way, 
that  species  differ  from  varieties  by  possessing  characters 
that  through  a  longer  period  of  interbreeding  have  be- 
came more  firmlv  established  under  uniform  conditions. 

Plants  in  a  state  of  nature  perpetuate  their  species  and 


SEX  AND   FEBTILIZATIOJS".  115 

varieties  with  great  uniformity,  but  when  removed  from 
their  natural  habitats,  a  change  in  their  offspring  is  usually 
observable,  and  these  variations  may  be  intensified  by 
cultivation  and  other  external  causes.  The  first  variation 
may  be  considered  the  entering  wedge,  which  will,  if  fol- 
lowed up,  divide  and  disintegrate  the  most  stubborn  of 
species. 

The  novice  in  horticultural  matters  will  necessarily 
need  some  other  source  of  information  in  regard  to 
species  and  natural  varieties  than  that  acquired  through 
his  own  personal  observation,  and  this  is  found  in  our 
standard  botanical  works,  but  it  may  be  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  their  authors  are  as  other  men,  not  wholly 
infallible,  but  probably  as  near  right  as  the  present  state 
of  botanical  science  permits  ;  also  that  the  acquirement  of 
true  knowledge  often  tends  to  change  the  opinions  of  the 
most  learned. 

Taking  our  standard  botanical  works  as  a  guide  in  the 
classification  of  plants,  we  may  say  that  most  species 
may  be  hybridized  and  varieties  cross-fertilized.  We 
cannot  say  all  may  be,  because  we  would  have  nothing 
better  than  a  mere  theory  on  which  to  base  such  an  as- 
sertion, and  it  is  well  known  that  there  are  many  closely 
allied  species  that  have  successfully  resisted  all  efforts  to 
hybridize  them.  For  instance,  no  one  has  ever  been  able 
to  hybridize  or  produce  a  hybrid  plant  between  the 
Alpine  Strawberry  of  both  Europe  and  America  and  any 
other  of  the  various  species  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.  We  might  also  naturally  suppose  that  it 
would  not  be  difficult  to  hybridize  the  different  species 
of  the  true  Cherries  (Cerasus),  but  all  the  species  and 
varieties  that  produce  their  flowers  in  racemes  have  thus 
far  resisted  all  efforts  to  hybridize  or  cross  them  with 
those  which  bear  flowers  in  umbels.  While  I  would  not 
venture  to  assert  that  the  various  species  cannot  be 
hybridized,  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  they  ever  will 


116  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

be.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  while  certain  species 
oj^a  gen^sjnay  have  sufficient  affinity  to  admit  of  hybrid- 
izing, others  do  not.  Among  some  kinds  of  fruits 
hybrids  have  been  produced  between  widely  separated 
and  very  distinct  species,  as,  for  instance,  between  the 
Black  Cap  Raspberry  (Rubus  occidentalis) ,  and  the 
European  Raspberry  (R.  Idceus).  The  late  Charles 
Arnold,  of  Canada,  produced  several  such  hybrids, 
although  they  were  of  no  value  for  cultivation.  In  view 
of  what  has  already  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
hybridizing  and  crossing,  and  the  small  number  of  per- 
sons who  have  experimented  in  this  field,  it  would  be 
mere  presumption  on  the  part  of  any  one  to  attempt  to 
determine  the  limits  of  such  operations.  It  is  generally 
supposed,  however,  that  the  hybridizer  is  restricted  in  his 
operations  to  the  members  of  a  genus— that  is,  he  can 
only  produce  hybrids  between  the  species  of  the  same 
genus,  and  a  genus  is  simply  a  group  of  species  all  pos- 
sessing similar  generic  characteristics.  But,  as  I  have 
already  shown,  the  species  of  a  single  genus  some- 
times resist  all  attempts  to  force  them  to  intermingle  or 
hybridize,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  are  as  far 
removed  from  each  other  in  relationship  as  the  members 
of  some  distinct  genera.  It  is  also  probable  that  in  some 
instances  botanists  have  made  mistakes  in. the  grouping 
of  species,  as  well  as  in  their  separation  or  designation. 
It  is  certainly  quite  possible  thafc  two  species  supposed 
to  belong  to  a  different  genera  may  be  forced  to  inter- 
breed ;  in  fact,  hybrids  between  two  supposed-to-be  distinct 
genera  are  already  known,  and  a  hybrid  Palm,  the  Micro- 
phmnix  sahuti,  is  quite  a  recent  production  of  this  kind. 
The  experimenter  need  not  hesitate  to  attempt  the 
hybridizing  of  the  species  of  closely  allied  genera, 
although  it  is  quite  probable  thafc  in  a  large  majority  of 
instances  it  will  be  but  a  waste  of  time. 


IXFLUEKCE   OF   POLLED.  117 

CHAPTER    IX. 
INFLUENCE  OF  POLLEN. 

Whether  the  influence  of  the  pollen  extends  beyond 
the  ovule  and  ovary  or  not,  is  a  question  that  has  not 
attracted  any  considerable  attention  from  either  vegetable 
physiologists  or  practical  cultivators  of  plants.  It  is 
quite  evident,  however,  that  there  is  a  reciprocal  action 
extending  far  beyond  the  ovary,  else  unfertilized  ovules 
would  not  so  uniformly  show  the  non-development  of  the 
ovary  as  well  as  various  external  organs.  In  the  Eose 
family,  in  which  we  find  the  Apple,  Pear,  Quince,  etc., 
the  embryo  fruit  is  formed  before  the  flowers  expand, 
and  it  is  the  same  in  the  Melon  family,  and,  in  fact,  in  a 
large  majority  of  plants  the  seed-vessels  and  ovules  are 
plainly  discernible  long  before  the  flowers  appear  or 
the  sexual  organs  are  developed ;  but  ifjthe  ovules  are 
ixot_f«rtilized^4he  entire  flower  and  ftpwer-stajk  soon 
witUer  and  drop  off.  When  fertilization  occurs,  an 
immediate  change  in  the  parts  take  place  ;  the  ovary  and 
its^enyejope,  whether  in  the  form  of  a  pulpy  fruit  or 
membranous  pod  or  shell,  respond  to  the  demand  of  the 
fertilized  ovule,  enlarging  and  thickening  as  it  becomes 
the  natural  receptacle  of  the  embryo  seeds.  The  flower- 
stalk  supporting  these  organs  also  enlarges,  as  it  becomes 
tl^e  vehicle  through  which  nutriment  passes  from  the 
parent  stock  to  the  flower  and  fruit.  The  calyx  of  the 
flower  and  other  leaf-like  organs  assimilate  the  crude  sap 
which  reaches  them,  thereby  aiding  in  the  development 
of  the  embryo  seeds  and  the  seed-vessel.  In  the  absence 
of  fertilization,  all  the  various  parts  of  the  flower,  embryo 
fruit  and  fruit-stalks  soon  wither  away.  This  is  the 
general  result  of  non-fertilization  of  the  embryo,  as  every 
cultivator  of  plants  must  have  seen.  But  while  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  presence  of  the  fertilized 


118  PKOPAGATIOtf   OF   PLAKTS. 

ovule  is  necessary  to  the  enlargement  of  the  surrounding 
and  supporting  organs,  it  appears  that  very  few  observers 
have  endeavored  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  pollen  beyond 
the  seed,  probably  because  the  practical  utility  of  the 
operation,  in  most  instances,  ceases  at  this  point, 
although  every  observing  horticulturist  must  have  noticed 
that  the  parts  most  valued  in  what  we  call  fruits,  are  at 
least  dependent  upon  pollination,  even  if  the  act  does  not 
extend  to  actual  fertilization  of  the  ovule.  I  use  the 
term  pollination  to  designate  an  act  in  plants  the  equiva- 
lent of  co-habitation  in  animals,  which  does  not  neces- 
sarily extend  to  or  result  in  fertilization.  The  necessity 
of  the  presence  of  pollen  to  produce  perfect  fruits  and 
seeds  is  not  doubted,  but  the  moot  point  connected  with 
this  matter  is,  whether  or  not  in  cross-fertilization,  the 
pollen  has  any  influence.!!!  changing  the  form,  color  or 
properties  of  the  parts  enclosing  the  ovary.  My  atten- 
tion was  first  called  to  this  matter  some  twenty-five  years 
ago,  while  experimenting  with  various  pistillate  varieties 
of  the  Strawberry,  the  flowers  of  which,  as  is  well  known, 
must  be,  fertilized  with  pollen  from  some  perfect  flow- 
ered variety,  in  order  to  secure  a  crop  of  berries.  When 
employin^fVarieties  bearing  large  coxcomb-shaped  fruit, 
like  that  of  the  Peabody  and  Triomphe  de  Gand,  for 
supplying  pollen  to  such  pistillates  as  the  Hovey  and 
Burr's  New  Pine,  I  noticed  that  fche_Jruit  of  the  latter 
two  often  assumed  the_shape__ojf  the  former  or  ^ollen- 
yielding^planj;s.  "^his  led  me  to  further  experiments  in 
that  direction,  all  of  which  tended  to  establish  the  fact, 
that  the  influence  of  the  .pollen,,  is  often  sufficiently 
otent,  no 


potent,  not  only  to  change  the  form,  but  also 
and-flav,o^  ofjhte^friiit.  I  briefly  referred  to  this  subject 
in  my  "Small  Fruit  Culturist"  published  in  1867,  and 
since  that  time  I  have  had  occasion  to  make  many  other 
experiments,  for  determining  the  influence  of  pollen  in 
cross-fertilization  and  hybridization  of  different  kinds  of 


INFLUENCE   OF   POLLEN.  119 

plants,  and  the  results,  in  a  majority  of  instances,  have 
shown  that  its  influence^  always  extends  .beyond  the  ovule, 
,{jii£,  its  effect  is  iaF  from  being  uniform  in  producing 
pronounced  changes  in  the  color,  form  of  the  fruit,  or 
pericarpic  organs.  This  is  not  at  all  strange,  inasmuch 
as  tiiejlanXs  bearing  tlje-iertiligfid  flowers  also  supply 
tke  entire  nutriment  necessary  for  their  support  and 
development,  hence,  would  naturally  Jiaye  a  much 
greater  influence  on  the  growth  of  the  seed-vessel  than 
any  likely  to  be  conveyed  in  a  few  grains  of  pollen. 
Still,  the  influence  of  the  pollen  on  the  female  organs 
readily  discernible,  and  through  these  it  must  necessarily 
affect,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  all  parts  of  the  plant 
that  respond  to  the  demand  for  nutrients  to  the  seed 
and  surrounding  organs.  "We.  can  readily  see  the  effect 
of  fertilization,  and  often,  mere  pollination,  in  plants  by 
the  rapid  swelling  and  growth  of  the  pericarpic  organs — 
the  fruit  stalks  and  their  various  appendages — and  even 
trace  it  down  to  the  very  roots, of  such  plants  as  the 
Strawberry  and  other  herbaceous  kinds. 

PollejiJ^  not  ^simple  substance,  but  a  coimpounjd,  and 
while  its  principal  office  is  to  convey  to  the  female  cells 
fertilizing  materials,  it  may  also  car ryjelem c n  t  s  of  health 
or^disease,  as  well  as  those  that  are  or  may  become  Ueredi- 
tary  characteristics  of  its  race.  In  the  animal  kingdom 
we  have  an  exact  parallel  case,  for,  leaving  out  all  mental 
impressions,  the  male  parent  contributes  no  more 
towards  the  production  of  the  offspring  in  proportion  to 
size,  and  we  doubt  if  as  much,  as  does  the  male  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  Still,  no  breeder  of  choice  stock 
would  willingly  permit  the  contamination  or  adultera- 
ation  of  the  blood  of  the  female  by  a  scrub  animal,  or 
even  one  out  of  the  direct  line  of  the  pure  breed.  It  is 
an  old  saying  that  "there  is  a  black  sheep  in  almost 
every  flock, "  but  there  are  probably  few  persons  who 
know  the  full  significance  of  this  phrase  when  applied  to 


120  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

sheep,  and  especially  to  the  long  known  American 
Merinos.  No  breeder  of  these  sheep  in  the  past  fifty  or 
sixty  years  has  allowed  a  black  male  in  his  flock,  and  yet 
almost  every  season  an  ewe  among  the  pure  bloods,  as 
they  are  called,  will  drop  a  black  lamb,  a  direct  reversion 
to  some  early  ancestor  of  this  color.  No  one  can  tell  how 
long,  or  through  how  many  generations,  this  early  con- 
tamination will  continue  to  show  itself.  Similar  cases 
of  reversion,  the  result  of  contamination  of  blood,  as  it 
may  be  termed,  are  known  to  frequently  occur  among  all 
of  our  domesticated  and  improved  breed  of  animals,  and 
they  are  as  likely  to  originate  with  and  become  hereditary 
in  the  male  line  as  in  the  female.  As  there  is  an  affinity 
between  animals  to  admit  of  breeding,  so  there  must  be 
the  same  among  plants,  and  the  mobile  pollen  promotes, 
if  it  does  not  cause,  excitability  in  the  female  organs  of 
the  flower,  and  thus  produce  a  responsive  action  from 
those  below  and  beyond,  as  already  stated. 

While  it  is  not  claimed  that  the  influence  of  the  pollen 
will,  in  all  cases,  show  itself  in  marked  changes  in  the 
form  or  size  of  the  pericarpic  organs,  still  that  it  often 
does  this  can  scarcely  be  doubted  by  any  one  who  has 
ever  made  careful  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  truth  in  this  matter.  In  cross-fertilizing 
varieties  of  Indian  Corn  of.  different  colors,  the  influence 
of  the  pollen  can  be  readily  traced,  not  only  in  produc- 
ing kernels  on  the  same  ear  of  different  sizes,  shape  and 
color,  but  the  cob  underneath  the  black,  yellow  or  red 
kernels  will  usually  be  tinged  with  a  corresponding 
color.  In  all  plants  having  a  distinct  pisjtil  for  each  seejl, 
as  in  Indian  Corn,  the  Sorghums  and  ]Vtille.ts,  or  in  fruits 
like  the  Strawberry,  Easpberiv,  tic.,  each,  and  every 
avule  must  be  fertilized  in  order  to  produce  a  perfect  ear 
or  fEuifc.  If  none  of  the  ovules  are  fertilized,  the  ear, 
fruit,  or  pericarpic  organs,  and  even  supporting  fruit- 
stalk  and  stem,  wither  away. 


INFLUENCE   OF   POLLED.  121 

Since  the  attention  of  horticulturists  has  been  called 
to  this  subject,  several  who  combine  science  with  prac- 
tice have  repeated  my  earlier  experiments  with  the 
Strawberry,  and  in  a  majority  of  instances  with  like 
results.  Prof.  W.  R.  Lazenby,  of  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  made  several  very  carefully-conducted  experi- 
ments with  different  varieties  of  the  Strawberry  in  1884, 
the  results  of  which  were  fully  reported  in  the  Bulletin 
of  the  Station  for  that  year.  In  referring  to  these  experi- 
ments at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Pomological 
Society  in  1885,  Prof.  Lazenby  stated  that  he  employed 
a  pistillate  variety  of  the  Strawberry,  known  as 
the  Crescent.  "Boxes  open  above  and  below,  and 
cohered  with  whitewashed  glass,  were  placed  over  the 
plants  to  prevent  accidental  fertilization  of  the  flowers 
by  insects  or  otherwise."  The  results  in  brief  were  : 
The  Charles  Downing  pollen  communicated  its  .char- 
acteristic shape,  texture,  and  other  qualities,  and  the 
same  with  Sharpless  and  Vick,  so  that  any  one  familiar 
with  the  berries  could  tell  by  looking  at  the  crop  from 
what  source  the  pollen  came.  The  following  season, 
or  in  1885,  Prof.  Lazenby  repeated  the  experiment, 
but  with  far  less  satisfactory  results,  showing,  as  I  have 
said,  that  the  irifluence^f  the  pollen  is  not  always  suffi- 
ciently  powerful  to  change  size,  color,  etc.,  or  it  may  be 
said  that  the  influence  of  the  female  plant  is  strong 
ejiougli  to  Qverjjalance^and  partly  suppress  that  of  the 
niale. 

Prof.  Julius  Sachs,  in  his  recent  great  work,  "  Text 
Book  of  Botany,  "  says,  p.  495  :  "  The  increase  in  size  of 
the  ovary,  which  is  frequently  enormous  (in  Curcubitm,\ 
Cocos,  etc.,  several  thousand  times  in  volume),  shows,  in  a 
striking  manner,  the  results  of  fertilization  *  *  *  to 
the  rest  of  the  plant.  Frequently  similar  changes  result 
also  in  other  parts.  Thus,  it  is  the.  receptacle  thatTcon- 
stitutejOhe  fleshy  swelling  which  is  called  the  Straw- 


122  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

berry,  on  the  surface  of  which  a^re  seated  the  small  true 
fruity."  Also  on  page  594:  "But  sometimes  the  long 
series  of  deep-seated  changes  indu-ced  by  fertilization  cjt- 
tend  also  to  parts,  which~db  not  belong  to  the  ovary  and 
even  to  some  which  have  never  belonged  to  the  flower.  " 
Among  the  plants  so  affected  he  names  the  JJig,J$i£aw.- 
berry  and  Mulberry. 

In  some  kinds  of  plants  even  the  ovary  itself  appears 
to  be  the  resu3i_of  pollination.  Dr.  Hildebrand  has 
shown  that  in  some,  of  the  Orchids,  that  it  is  only  during 
the  growth  of  the  pollen  tubes  through  the  tissues  of  the 
stigma  and  style  that  the  ovules  become  so  far  developed 
that  fertilization  can  at  length  be  affected.  In  other 
words,  in  the  absence  of  pollen,  no  ovary  or  organs  for 
containing  ovules  or  seed  are  produced.  But  as  the  • 
space  at  my  disposal  will  not  admit  of  reference  to  the 
various  authors  who  have  touched  upon  this  subject,  I 
must  omit  them,  for  my  principal  object  in  referring  to 
the  influence  of  pollen  upon  other  organs  besides  the 
seeds  is  to  opelfthe  way  for  seeking  an  explanation  of  the 
cause  of  certain  phenomena  often  occurring  among  culti- 
vated plants — for  instance,  the  occasional  chan^e^of 
color  and  general  appearance  of  specimens  of  fruits, 
when  growing  in  close  proximity  to  other  closely  aljied 
but  distinct  species  or  varieties.  There  are  many  in- 
stances on  record,  and  others  are  being  noted  every  sea- 
son, both  in  Europe  and  this  country,  of  Jxuite,  and 
especially  Apples  on  one  tree,  assuming  the  color  of  those 
of  an  adjoining  tree.  Sometimes  only  one  or  two  speci- 
mens on  interlacing  branches  are  thus  affected,  while  in 
other  instances  nearly  all,  or  a  certain  branch,  will  show 
the  effect  of  the.  cross-ferjilization.  Several  such  in- 
stanc3s  were  observed  and  reported  by  Dr.  Hildebrand, 
of  England,  to  the  Gardeners1  Chronicle,  some  twenty 
years  ago,  and  in  each  case  the  change  in  the  color  of 
the  fruit  showed  very  clearly  that  it  .was  due  to  the 


INFLUENCE   OF   POLLED.  123 

influence  of  the  pollen  of  flowers  on  branches  of  other 
varieties  growing  in  close  proximity.  White  Apples 
have  been  colored  when  .growing  near  red  varieties,  and 
those  having  smooth  skins  have  been  covered  with  russet 
on  branches  that  have  been  interlaced  with  those  of  rus- 
set trees.  That  this  cross-fertilization  does  riot  occur 
every  season,  is  due  to  the  fact  that. self-fertilization  is 
the  most  natural  and  frequent  in  the  flowers  of  the  Apple 
and  kindred  fruits,  and  further,  when  crossing  does 
occur,  it  is  not, to  be  supposed  that  the  effect  will  always 
be  sufficient  to  change  the  color  or  other  characteristics 
of  the  fruit. 

In  the  many  experiments  that' I  have  made  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  extent  to  which  the  influence 
of  the  pollen  could  be  distinctly  traced,  I  will  only  refer 
to  one  which  has  recently  been  completed  on  plants,  so 
common  that  the  merest  tyro  in  gardening  must  not  only 
be  acquainted  with  them,  but  can  readily  repeat  my  ex- 
periments if  they  care  to  do  so.  I  refer  to  the  Shrubby 
Abutilons,  which  come  to  us  from  South  America,  where 
some  of  the  species  grow  to  a  height  of  thirty  feet. 
Nearly  all  the  species  and  varieties  in  cultivation  bloom 
freely  either  in  the  open  ground  or  under  glass,  but  pro- 
duce seed  very  sparingly,  and  some  none  at  all,  unless 
artificially  cross-fertilized.  Another  point  in  their  favor 
for  testing  the  influence  of  pollen  is,  that  the  seed-pods 
of  the  different  species  and  varieties  are  quite  various  in 
size  and  form,  and  any  disturbing  or  foreign  influence 
can  the  more  readily  be  traced  to  the  pericarpic  organs. 
Among  the  twenty  or  more  species  and  varieties  in  culti- 
vation, I  selected  Santana  and  Boule  de  Neige  as  two 
extremes  in  the  way  of  varieties  likely  to  be  the  best 
for  my  experiments.  These  may  be  only  varieties  of  the 
same  species,  but  from  the  form  and  color  of  these  flowers 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that  Santana  is  from  A.  venosum, 
and  Boule  de  Neige  from  A.  pulcliellum.  My  plant  of 


124  PROPAGATION   OF   PLAKTS. 

the  Santana  is  seven  or  eight  years  old,  and  is  planted  in 
the  ground  in  one  corner  of  my  greenhouse,  and  has  been 
cut  back  several  times  to  keep  it  within  bounds.  It  is  a 
mass  of  flowers  all  the  year  round,  but  has  never  shown  a 
a  sign  of  producing  seeds,  except  as  the  flowers  are  arti- 
ficially fertilized  by  pollen  from  some  other  variety.  Its 
own  pollen  is  impotent  for  fertilizing  its  own  stigma,  as  I 
have  proved  by  repeated  experiments,  but  it  is  perfectly 
potent  on  other  varieties.  The  form  of  the  seed-pods 
of  the  Santana  is  broad  top-shaped,  the  ten  to  twelve 
loctilicidal  cells  are  each  tipped  with  a  prominent  winged 
terminal  point,  as  shown  in  figure  48,  while  the  seed- 
pods  of  Boule  de  Neige  are  slightly  smaller,  and  the 
cells,  instead  of  widening  at  the  top,  are  contracted,  or 
more  or  less  rounded  inward,  as  shown  in  figure  48  at 
A.  Now,  to  fertilize  the  stigmas  of  the  Boule  de  Neige 
with  pollen  from  the  Santana  is  but  a  simple  opera- 
tion, requiring  only  a  few  minutes  for  its  performance. 
Twenty  flowers  in  one  experiment  were  thus  fertilized, 
and  the  result  was  that  five  of  the  seed-pods  assumed 
the  form  of  those  of  the  Santana  or  male  parent,  as 
shown  in  figure  48,  B,  the  other  fifteen  retaining  the 
normal  form.  The  plants,  however,  since  raised  from 
the  seed  show  plainly  the  effect  of  cross-fertilization. 
But  in  reversing  this  operation,  and  in  fertilizing  more 
than  fifty  flowers  of  the  Santana  with  pollen  from  those 
of  the  Boule  de  Neige,  in  no  instance  has  there  been  any 
very  marked  change  in  the  normal  form  of  the  seed-pods, 
but  I  have  seldem  failed  to  effect  cross-fertilization  or 
obtain  fertile  seed.  The  Santana  being  much  the 
strongest  and  most  vigorous  plant  of  the  two  operated 
upon,  it  is  not  at  all  strange  that  what  I  presume  is  the 
normal  form  of  the  seed-vessels  should  be  retained  under 
the  circumstances.  As  a  rule  the  female  plant,  if 
equally  as  vigorous  and  healthy  as  the  male,  will  exert  the 
greatest  influence  upon  the  offspring,  because  there  are  no 


INFLUENCE  OF  POLLEN. 


125 


Fig.  48.— BOULE  DB  NEIGE  ABUTILON,  CROSSED  WITH  SANTANA. 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

mental  faculties  to  assist  in  impressing  and  perpetuating 
the  male  or  other  sexual  characteristics,  as  in  the  animal 
kingdom. 

As  I  have  shown  in  the  case  of  the  Abutilons,  sexual 
affinity  presents  wide  variations,  which  can  only  be  defi- 
nitely determinedly  actual  experiments  upon  the  plants 
themselves.  No  theory  will  explain  why  the  pollen  of  a 
plant  cannot  fertilize  its  own  ovules,  while  it  has  an 
affinity  for,  and  is  potent  upon,  those  of  another  closely 
allied  plant.  If  the  pollen  from  several  different  varieties 
or  species  is  applied  simultaneously  to  the  same  stigma, 
it  is  quite  evident  that  only  one  kind  will  be  potent,  and 
that  one  from  the  plant  possessing  the  greatest  sexual 
affinity  with  the  plant  pollinated. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  in  all  the  higher  orders 
of  plants  the  ovule  must  be  fertilized  in  order  to  secure 
perfect  and  fertile  seed,  but  there  are  some  fej^_rn,- 
stancps  on  record  where  seed^  are  supposed  to  have  been 
produced  in  the  absence  of  fertilization,  or,  as  it  has  been 
termed,  by  Parthenogenesis.  Prof.  Asa  Gray  thinks  it 
does  sometimes  occur  among  Dioecious  plants.  A  cen- 
tury ago  (1786)  Lazaro  Spallanzani,  published  his  ob- 
servations on  the  fecundation  of  plants,  and  claimed 
to  have  found  pistillate  blossoms  of  the  Hemp  producing 
fertile  seed  in  the  absence  of  pollen.  A  half  century  later 
Drs.  Charles  Naudin  and  Joseph  Decaisne  are  said  to  have 
confirmed  the  fact  by  raising  seedlings  from  Euphor- 
biaceous  plants,  also  from  the  common  Bryony,  which 
were  kept  from  all  access  of  pollen.  While  I  am  not 
disposed  to  question  the  statements  of  such  high  botan- 
ical authorities,  or  to  attempt  to  offset  their  experiments 
with  those  of  my  own,  still  I  think  there  is  room  for  a 
(kiu^jk  in  this  matter,  and  especially  when  we  take  into 
consideration  the  present  undetermined  boundaries  of 
species. 

The  question  arises,  may  not  the  pollen  of  some  other 


OF   POLLED.  127 

and  closely  allied  plant  have  reached  the  stigma,  causing 
a  sufficient  responsive  action  to  insure  fertile  seed  ?  \J?oU 
4ination  .does  not  necessarily  extend  to  fertilization,  and 
the  presence  of  pollen  on  the  stigma  may  result  in  pollen 
tubes,  which,  upon  reaching  the  ovule,  fail  to  fertilize  it, 
owing  to  the  want  of  sufficient  natural  affinity  between 
the  two.  In  plants  like  the  Strawberry,  the  pistillate 
varieties  are  merely  abnormal  productions,  the  result  of 
some  chance  suppression  of  the  stamens,  and  in  such 
instances  we  may  always  expect  an  occasional  develop- 
ment of  the  suppressed  organs.  It  has  been  said  that 
"necessity  knows  no  law,"  and  there  are  goqd  reasons 
for  expecting  that  nature  will  make  the  effort^  and  she  is 
often  successful  in  supplying  an  absent  organ,  as  well  as 
employing  various  means  to  accomplish  the  same  results. 
My  own  experience  leads  me  to  "doubt  the  production 
of  fertile  seeds  where  there  is  a  total  absence  of  pollen, 
either  in  dioecious  or  other  highly- developed  plants,. but 
it  may  .not  be  always  necessary  that  the  pollen  should 
be  supplied  by  plants  of  the  same  or.  very  closely  allied 
species.  For  instance,  for  many  years  Iliad  growing  in 
my  grounds  a  pistillate  specimen  of  the  Box  Elder  or 
Ash-leaved  Maple  (Negundo  aceroides).  There  being 
no  staminate  or  male  tree  in  my  own  grounds  or  in  the 
neighborhood,  at  least  not  within  a  radius  of  six  or  eight 
miles,  consequently  a  fertile  seed  on  the  said  tree  could 
not  be  found.  Every  year  for  a  decade  this  tree  was 
loaded  with  its  unfertile  seed,  which  were  scattered 
broadcast  under  the  branches  of  some  large  pines — a 
favorable  position  for  germination  if  there  had  been  a 
perfect  seed  produced  among  the  vast  number.  There 
were  many  other  species  and  varieties  of  the  Maple  in 
my  grounds,  but  none  growing  very  near  or  that  bloomed 
at  the  same  time  as  the  Negundo.  In  the  spring  of  1879 
I  planted  a  large  Red  Maple  (Acer  nibrum),  about  sixty 
feet  from  the  Negtmdo,  and  the  transplanting  delayed  its 


128  PROPAGATION    OF   PLANTS. 

blooming,  the  flowers  appearing  with  those  of  the  former, 
although  the  Ked  Maple  usually  blooms  several  days 
earlier  than  the  Negundo.  The  next  season  I  found 
several  seedling  Negundo  Maples  coming  up  under  a 
Pine  tree  near  by.  These  were  transplanted,  and  last 
spring,  1886,  one  of  them  bore  seed,  a  pistillate  like 
the  parent.  While  I  cannot  say  positively  that  the 
flowers  of  the  Negundo  Maple  were  pollinated  or  fertilized 
by  those  of  the  Ked  Maple,  still  the  facts  in  the  case 
point  strongly  that  way.  The  seedlings  produced  in 
this  anomalous  manner  do  not  appear  to  be  hybrids,  but 
this  point  cannot  be  definitely  determined  until  plants 
are  raised  from  the  present  race  of  seedlings,  and  even 
then  the  influence  of  the  pollen-bearing  parent  may  re- 
main hidden  through  several  generations  and  afterwards 
appear  when  and  where  least  expected.  It  is  not  at  all 
improbable  that  the  presence  of  nan-related  pollen  may 
excite  development  in  the  pericarpic  organs,  and  if  this 
be  true  we  can  the  more  readily  account  for  the  produc- 
tion of  fruits  with  abortive  seeds — the  stigma  having 
been  pollinated,  but  the  pollen  tubes  having  failed  to 
fertilize  the  ovules. 

The  excitability  of  plants  due  to  the  presence  andv  inr 
flaences  of  pollen  has  long  been  observed  by  the  cultivators 
of  the  Hop  plant,  the  quantity  of  lupuline  deposited  in 
the  strobiles  or  female  catkins  being  far  more  abundant 
when  there  are  staminate  or  male  plants  present  than 
when  they  aro  absent.  It  is  also  well  known  that 
,among  our  larger  |ruits  we  have  seasons  of  scarcity  _and 
of  abundance,  and  these  variations  cannot  be  attributed 
to  changes  in  the  climate  or  to  age,  maturity  or  non- 
maturity  of  the  trees,  for  planting  is  going  on  continually, 
so  all  sizes,  ages  and  varieties  are  represented  in  our 
orchards,  still  all  seem  to  readily  acquire  the  habit  of 
bearing  full  crops  every  alternate  year  or  at  longer  Inter- 
nals, That  this  unity  of  action  among  fruit  trees,  as 


INFLUENCE   OF  POLLEN.  189 

well  as  forest  trees,  may  in  part  be  due  to  exhaustion  in 
bearing  a  full  cropland  the  necessity  for  a  season  or  two 
of  rest  and  recuperation,  is  probably  true,  as  some  have 
claimed ;  but  that  it  is  largely  due  to  general  periodic 
sexual  excitement  can  scarcely  be  questioned,  for.similar 
phenomena  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Animal  as 
well  as  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

PUKPOSES  OF  CROSS-FERTILIZING. — The  results  sought 
in  cross-fertilizing  of  varieties,  or  the  hybridizing  of 
species,  are  various,  but  the  principal  one  is  to  produce 
something  different  from  either  parent.  Sometimes  we 
may  aim  to  increase  the  size,  or  change  the  color,  texture, 
flavor^  or  other  characteristic  of  a  fruit,  or  the  size,  form 
and  color  of  the  flower  or  habit  of  a  plant.  Adaptation  - 
of  the  various  species  and  varieties  of  cultivated  plants  to 
specific  conditions  is  another,  and  often  a  very  important, 
object  sought  in  producing  cross-bred  plants.  There  are 
many  species,  and  occasionally  varieties,  which  have  been 
so  closely  and  -continuously  inbred  in  their  native  habi- 
tats or  elsewhere  that  theyliave  acquired  a  fixedness  of 
character  that  removals  to  other  localities,  and  subjection 
to  widely  different  conditions  fail  to  effect  any  material 
change  in  their  offspring ;  .but  hy^crossjng,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  new  sexual  or  other  elements,  the  foundation 
of  generations,  as  it  maybe  termed,  is  broken  up,  and 
wider  deviations  from  normal  types  soon  follow.  It  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  introduce  an  undesirable  ele- 
ment, in  order  to  force  a  plant  to  break  away  from  its 
typical  form,  but  when  we  have  succeeded  in  this,  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to ;b reed  out  the  undesirable  characteristics 
or  properties.  Then,  again,  we  cannot  know  in  advance 
what  will  be  the  result  of  crossing  any  two  plants  of  the 
same  genus  or  species,  for  even  the  mingling  of  two  in- 
ferior elements  may  result  in  the  production  of  one  supe- 
rior to  either  of  the  originals  ;  still,  we  would  noj^advise 
using  inferior  materials  in  preference  to  superior,  except, 


130  PROPAGATION"   OF   PLANTS. 

when  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  effect  a  desired  varia- 
tion, as  may  sometimes  occur  when  a  person  has  but  a 
limited  number  of  species  or  varieties  of  a  genus  with 
which  to  experiment. 

4,  wilding  may  possess  some,  very  desirable  properties, 
such  as  vigor,  hardiness  and  exemption  from  disease, 
while  its  domesticated  congener  lacks  one  or  all  of  these 
properties;  so, _by comjbinino^the  best  elements  of  the 
two,  a  new  and  superior  progeny  may  be  produced. 

As  yet  no  very  marked  improvements  among  cultivated 
fruits  have  been  made  by  hybridizing,  although  in  a  few 
instances,  as  with  the  Grape,  it  may  have  aided  in  causing 
the  species  to  break  away  from  the  wild  type,  and  through 
the  wide  variation  resulting  from  artificial  fertilization 
some  valuable  varieties  may  have^Been  secured.  Whether 
the  hybrids  between  the  indigenous  species  of  the  Grape 
of  North  America  and  the  Vitis  vinifera  of  Europe  are 
as  well  adapted  to  our  climate  as  the  pure  native  varie- 
ties is  at  least  questionable  ;  still,  it  may  be  that  the  in- 
troduction of  a  foreign  element  will  yet  prove  to  have 
been  a  judicious  movement,  and  in  the  right  direction, 
for  yielding  the  best  possible  results. 

The  object  in  all  cases  should  be  to  introduce  valuable 
properties,  and  in  such  a  combination  that  they  can  be 
made  available.  We  may,  among  fruits,  secure  size, 
color,  texture — in  fact,  all  the  good  qualities  known  to 
belong  to  or  exist  in  a  certain  species,  and  still  these  will 
be  of  little  value  unless  the  plant  itself  is  adapted  tp^  the 
soil  and  climate  where  it  is  to  be  cultivated.  In  fact, 
adaptation  is  all  that  is  sought  or  can  be  credited  to  what 
is  termed  acclimatizing  of  plants  and  animals,  for  it  is 
scarcely  to  be  supposed  that  the  constitutional  characters 
of  the  individual  plant  or  animal  can  be  greatly  or  per- 
manently affected  by  a  removal  from  one  climate  or  con- 
dition to  another.  One  variety  of  plant  may  be  more 
hardy,  and  safely  endure  many  degrees  lower  temperature, 


INFLUENCE  OF  POLLEST.  131 

than  another  of  the  same  species,  but  no  amount  of  nursing 
or  moving  about  will  ever  change  a  tender  plant  or  animal 
into  a  hardy  one.  But  by  introducing  new  elements,  as 
in  cross-fertilization,  we  multiply  the  causes  for  wide 
variation  through  the  dift'erent^hej^ditary  cJiaracteristics 
of  .both  parents.  Then,  by  careful  selection  and  propa- 
gation of  such  crags-bred,  varieties  as  are  worth  preseiva- 
tion,  we  are  often  able  to  secure -those  adapted  to  widely 
different  conditions,  as  seen  among  all  of  our  long-culti- 
vated and  widely-disseminated  plants.  Why  the  seeds 
from  a  plant  should  yield  both  tender  and  hardy  varieties 
can  only  be  accounted  for  upon  the  hypotheosis  that  each 
possesses  transmitted  hereditary  characteristics,  but  what 
the  nature  of  the  laws  are  that  control  this  transmission 
we  know  little  or  nothing. 

plants  that  are  indigenous,  or  have  become  naturalized 
.in  cold  climates  .and  in  elevated  regions,  are  constantly 
subjected  to  the  loss,_of  their  leading  shoots  and  branches 
through  the  action  of  frosts  and  winds,  and  this  being 
repeatfid^fpr  ^centu.ries  in  succession,  the  plants  at  last 
become  permanently  dwarfed,  and.  this  character  becomes 
i^ce^aiK^^iffiarv,  as  seen  in  many  of  our  cultivated 
plants  obtained  from  very  cokLj^jdpij3£j^gi0ns.  The 
d \yarf  habit  remains  fixed  in  the  individual,  even  when 
cultivated  in, more  favorable  regions  of  a  country,  {ni£so 
soon  as  we  commence  to  raise  seedlings  from  these  pig- 
mies, we  find  that  there  is  a  tendency  in  a  certain  number 
to  grow  taller  than  the  parent  plant,  or  to  return  to  what 
we  may  presume  was  the  original  form  of  the  species. 

Form  andJia^Wt_^fjila.nt^  are  greatly  modifi^  by  J>ur- 
rounding  conditions,  and  while  severe  winds  and  low 
temperature  may  permanently  dwarf  plants  in  certain 
countries  or  regions,  high  temperature  and  poor  soils 
may  produce  similar  changes  elsewhere.  The  Chinqua- 
pin Chestnut  (Castanea pumila),  as  found  growing  wild 
over  quite  extensive  regions  in  some  of  our  Southern 


132  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

States,  is  a  familiar  instance  of  a  tree  being  reduced  to  a 
mere  shrub  through  the  influence  of  a  poor  soil  and 
other  uncongenial  surroundings.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions this  species  grows  to  a  tree  thirty  or  forty  feet 
high,  but  where  they  are  unfavorable,  it  is  but  a  mere 
shrub  from  two  to  six  feet  high,  even  when  the  plants 
have  reached  what  may  be  considered  maturity. 

Instances  of  permanent  changes  having  been  effected 
through  various  external  causes  are  no  doubt  familiar  to 
every  botanist  and  gardener,  but  the  practical  plant 
grower  should  be  on  his  guard,  lest  the  sudden  appear- 
ance of  some  hereditary  character,  or  direct  reversion  in 
seedlings  to  some  ancient  type,  mislead  him  into  think- 
ing that  the  variation  observed  is  the  result  of  his  own 
skill  in  cross-fertilization. 

All  plants  have  a  tendency  to  vary  in  different  direc- 
tions, the  cultivated  more  than  the  uncultivated,  while 
every  new  internal  element  introduced,  intensifies  this 
proclivity  to  depart  from  the  normal  type,  and  whenever 
a  departure  has  been  made,  it  is  likely  to  become  heredi- 
tary, consequently  it  is  often  difficult,  if  not  wholly 
impossible,  to  determine  to  what  disturbing  cause  we  are 
indebted  for  certain  results. 

BUD  VARIATION. — This  is  a  prolific  source  of  varieties 
among  plants,  although  by  far  the  greater  number  are 
raised  from  seed.  When  a  bud  on  a  tree  or  other  plant 
from  some  cause  unknown,  produces  a  sljoot  or  branch 
differing  from  others  on  the  same  stock,  it  is  attributed 
to  what  is  called  "  bud  variation,"  and  the  branch  or 
shoot  so  produced  is  termed  a  "  sport,"  to  distinguish 
varieties  originating  in  this  way,  from  those  raised  from 
s£ed,  or  the  direct  product  of  sexual  reproduction.  These 
sports,  if  removed  from  the  parent  plant  and  propagated 
by  division,  will  often  remain  permanent,  but  sometimes 
they  quickly  revert  to  the  original  or  parent  form.  In 
propagating  varieties  originating  from  bud  variations,  it 


INFLUENCE   OF  POLLED.  133 


is  usually  necessary  to  exercise  considerable  cOtVe,  in  order 
to  preserve  their  distinct  characteristics,  and"  this  is 
especially  true  in  those  with  variegated  leaves,  as  seen  in 
the  variegated  leaved  Elder,  Dogwood,  Ginkgo,  Maples, 
etc.,  for  all  of  these  possess  a  strong  tendency  to  revert 
to  the  plain  or  one-colored  leaf  of  the  parent.  Through 
bud  variation  we  have  obtained  many  of  the  most  highly 
prized  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  both  evergreen  and 
deciduous,  and  new  ones  are  constantly  being  added  to 
the  list.  There  is  certainly  a  cause  for  the  variation  of 
buds.  In  some  plants  it  may  be  an  attempt  to  revert  to 
some  earlier  form,  and  in  others  the  result  of  some 
element  introduced  through  the  sexual  organs,  either  in 
the  present  or  some  previous  generation;  but  whatever 
the  cause,  it  is  certainly  an  inherent  property  of  the  plant 
which  jsjiojjjconfined  to  one.  part  or  single  bud,  for  it 
frequently  occurs  that  several  buds  on  the  same  plant, 
but  on  different  branches  on  distant  parts  of  the  stem, 
produce  shoots  possessing  the  same  characteristics.  A 
noted  instance  of  this  kind  occurred  a  few  years  ago  on 
the  Remilly  Ash,  growing  near  Metz  in  France.  This 
tree  is  over  sixty  feet  high,  with  stem  about  six  feet  in 
circumference.  The  branches  are  pendulous,  and  the 
variety  is  known  as  a  Weeping  Ash  ;  but  three  buds,  one 
on  the  main  stem  near  the  top  and  two  on  separate 
branches  lower  down,  produced  shoots  which  assumed  an 
erect  habit,  and  have  continued  in  this  until  they  have 
become  large  branches.  Similar  freaks  or  bud  variations 
have  been  frequently  noticed  on  other  weeping  trees  botli 
in  this  country  and  Europe.  When  a  plant  has  shown  a 
tendency  to  produce  these  bud  variations  or  sports,  a 
repetition  may  be  looked  for,  even  if  the  first  one  is 
promptly  removed. 

About  ten  years  ago  I  noticed  a  single  branch  on  one  of 
my  specimen  plants  of  Golden  Retinispora  (R.  oUusa,  var. 
aurea  plumosa),  which  had  assumed  an  entirely  distinct 


134  PPOPAGATIOK   OF   PLANTS. 

form  of  growth  from  all  others  on  the  same  plant,  or  in 
fact  on  any  of  the  various  species  or  varieties  of  the 
Eetinisporas  in  my  grounds.  This  branch  was  layered, 
and  the  next  season  cut  off  and  planted  out  by  itself.  It 
is  now  more  than  three  times  the  size  of  the  parent  plant, 
and  so  distinct  from  it  in  leaf  and  habit  of  growth  that 
it  might  readily  be  taken  for  a  distinct  species  instead  of 
a  sport.  Prof.  George  Thnrber,  the  eminent  botanist,  de- 
scribed this  sport  in  1881,  and  named  it  Retinispora  obtusa 
Fuller i.  Three  years  ago  another  bud  on  the  same  plant, 
but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem,  produced  a  branch 
identical  in  every  respect  with  the  first  sport,  showing 
that  this  plant  has  either  inherited  or  developed  a  faculty 
of  producing  bud  varieties,  and  of  one  form  only. 

Sometimes  these  bud  varieties  show  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  the  color  of  the  foliage  or  habits  of  growth,  while 
in  others  only  the  flowers  appear  to  differ,  as  seen  in 
many  well-known  varieties  of  the  Eose  which  have  orig- 
inated in  this  way.  The  first  Moss  Eose  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  from  a  bud  on  the  old  Centifolia ;  the 
Striped  Moss  is  a  sport  of  the  old  Eed  Moss,  and  the 
White  Baron  Prevost  from  the  old  Pink  Hybrid  Perpet- 
ual of  the  same  names.  The  American  Banner,  Tri- 
omphe  d'Amens,  Painted  Orleans,  and  many  other  well- 
known  varieties  of  the  Eose,  originated  from  what  are 
termed  bud  variations.  AmQngfruij^bud ^variations 
are  constantly  occurring,  but  the  larger  number  are  prob- 
ably overlooked  and  consequently  lost.  The  Eed  Mag- 
num Bonum  Plum  is  said  to  have  originated  from  a  bud 
of  the  Yellow  Magnum  Bonum.  Many  instances  are 
recorded  of  Peach  trees  producing  Nectarines  on  one  or 
more  branches,  and  these  sports  have  frequently  been 
preserved  and  extensively  propagated.  The  seed  of  Nec- 
tarines originating  in  this  way  usually  produce  Nectarine 
trees,  not  reverting  to  the  Peach. 

The  earliest  instance  on  record  of  a  Peach  tree  produc- 


GEKEEAL  PKIKCIPLES   AND   METHODS.  135 

ing  Nectarines  is  mentioned  by  Peter  Collinson,  in  1741, 
but  they  have  been  so  frequent  since  that  they  have 
ceased  to  be  considered  rare  or  strange.  Similar  bud 
variations  may  be  looked  for  among  all  of  our  cultivated 
fruits,  and  the  horticulturist  should  be  constantly  on 
the  alert  for  such  freaks  and  endeavor  to  perpetuate  those 
likely  to  prove  valuable.  What  is  true  in  fruits  is  also 
true  among  ornamental  trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous 
plants,  and  those  who  are  seeking  ne\v  and  valuable  varie- 
ties may  often  find  them  where  least  expected. 


CHAPTEE    X. 
GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS.       • 

The  different  modes  of  propagating  plants  may  be 
classed  as  follows  : 

1. — Propagation  by  means  of  seeds  and  spores. 

2. — By  cuttings  of  the  stems,  twigs  and  leaves. 

3. — By  suckers  and  divisions. 

4. — By  root  cuttings. 

5. — By  budding  and  grafting. 

All  the  known  species  and  varieties  of  plants  may  be 
multiplied  by  one  or  another  of  these  methods,  and 
some  kinds  can  be  readily  propagated  by  each  and  every 
one  of  them.  But  there  are  certain  principles,  which 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  propagator  in  the  different  modes 
of  operation,  that  it  may  be  well  to  consider  before  pro- 
ceeding to  the  more  practical  part  of  the  subject.  Al- 
though, when  the  great  diversity  of  characters  as  well  as 
the  vitality  of  plants  is  considered,  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  any  general  rule  can  be  given  that  will  be  applicable 
to  every  case  or  be  altogether  faultless,  yet  for  the  purr 
pose  of  dispelling  that  mystery  with  which  the  novice 


136  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

often  supposes  the  various  modes  of  propagation  to  be 
surrounded,  I  shall  give  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  general 
principles  connected  therewith,  together  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  more  usual  methods  practised  by  our  most 
skilful  propagators  of  plants.  It  may  also  be  proper  to 
1  suggest  that,  however  well  informed  a  person  may  be  in 
regard  to  the  structure  and  habits  of  plants,  and  however 
extended  his  experience  and  perfect  the  conveniences 
for  propagation,  he  must  still  possess  skill  and  patience, 
and  exercise  great  care  and  watchfulness  in  every  opera- 
tion, in  order  to  become  a  successful  cultivator  and 
propagator  of  plants  in  general.  A  person  may  know 
just  how  an  operation  should  be  performed  and  still  lack 
the  skill  required  for  its  execution. 

PROPAGATIONS BY.  SEEDS. — The  perpetuation  of  the 
greaier  portion  of  the  knoY.~n  species  of  plants  is  directly 
by  their  seeds,  which,  in  their  wild  state,  they  perfect 
with  great  uniformity,  but  when  cultivated  the  vital 
forces  are  often  disturbed,  and  a  portion  is  directed  into 
other,  than  natural  channels.  The  effect  of  this  we  see 
in  the  double  flower  and  the  increased  size  of  many  of  our 
fruits.  The  seeds  of  so-called  "  improved  plants  "  often 
become  abortive  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  as  a 
means  of  reproduction,  not  only  because  of  the  want  of 
vitality  which  naturally  belongs  to  them,  but  in  the 
course  of  long  cultivation  there  has  been  such  an  inter- 
mingling of  species,  as  well  as  varieties,  that  scarcely 
any  variety  of  cultivated  fruit  will  reproduce  an  exjict 
counterpart  of  itself  from  seed.  Therefore  we  have  to 
resort  to  other  modes  of  propagation  to  perpetuate  any 
particular  variety. 

Under  what  particular  conditions  seeds  germinate 
most  readily  it  is  certainly  difficult  to  determine,  because 
of  their  great  diversity  of  character  and  functions. 
Heat  and  moisture  are  always  necessary  in  order  that  cer- 
tain changes  may  take  place  in  the  seed,  but  the  degree 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND   METHODS.  137 

of  heat  and  amount  of  moisture  required  are  exceedingly 
variable.  As  stated  elsewhere,  some  seeds  will  germinate 
at  a  temperature  slightly  above  that  of  freezing  water, 
while  others  require  nearly  or  quite  a  hundred  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Certain  kinds  of  seeds  will  absorb  more 
than  their  own  weight  of  water  before  sprouting  or 
bursting  their  hard,  bony  covering,  while  others  appear 
to  retain,  while  ripening,  nearly  all  the  moisture  required 
in  the  early  stages  of  growth.  Seeds  will  withstand  a 
higher  and  a  lower  temperature  in  a  dry  atmosphere 
than  in  a  moist  one,  hence  cool  and  dry,  as  well  as  hot 
and  dry,  are  non-inciting  and  preservative  conditions  for 
most  kinds  of  seeds.  But  seeds  in  general  are  not  so 
frail  as  to  be  readily  destroyed  by  slight  variation  in 
temperature,  or  in  the  hygrometric  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere,  'and  their  germination  may  usually  be 
hastened  or  retarded  without  serious  injury,  although  it 
is  always  safe  to  place  seeds  under  conditions  approxi- 
mating those  under  which  we  find  them  in  their  native 
habitats,  but  in  order  to  do  this  we  must  know  something 
of  their  history.  The  spores  of  Cryptogamous  plants 
indigenous  to  a  cold  climate  might  quickly  perish  if 
placed  under  the  conditions  most  favorable  for  the  growth 
of  a  Cryptogam  from  the  tropics,  and  the  same  difference 
may  often  be  noticed  in  the  seeds  of  higher  orders  of 
plants.  With  a  knowledge  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
climate  of  the  habitat  of  plants,  the  propagator  can  usually 
make  a  very  close  guess  in  regard  to  the  treatment  the 
seeds  require  to  insure  germination.  It  is  well,  how- 
ever, to  bear  in  mind  that  latitude  and  longitude  do  not 
furnish  a  very  trustworthy  guide  to  climate,  for  there  are 
snow-cupped  mountains  and  very  cool  or  cold  regions  of 
country  even  in  the  tropics,  or  within  the  belt  of  country 
so  designated  by  degrees  of  latitude.  Ocean  currents 
also  have  their  influence,  and  the  climate  of  widely  sepa- 
rated regions,  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude,  may  differ 


138  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

greatly,  as  seen  in  the  difference  between  that  of  New 
York  and  that  of  the  City  of  Madrid  in  Spain,  or  in  the 
climate  of  England,  and  of  Labrador.  Then,  again,  the 
hygrometric  conditions  may  have  a  very  marked  influence 
on  vegetation,  as  seen  in  the  cool,  dry,  elevated  regions 
of  our  own  and  other  countries.  Plants,  native  of  cold, 
dry  climates,  often  fail  in  moist,  warm  ones,  while  others 
are  wonderfully  improved  by  the  change,  and  all  these 
varying  conditions  and  results  must  be  duly  considered 
in  their  propagation  by  seeds  or  otherwise. 

When  supplied  with  the  requisite  amount  of  heat  and 
moisture,  all  seeds  grow  more  readily  when  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  than  whep.  buried  deeply,  therefore  we 
should  endeavor  to  so  place  them  in  or  on  t\ie  soil  that 
the  air  and  heat  can  reach  them,  but  at  the  same  time 
exclude  the  Jiglit,  for  darkness  is  favorable  to  germina- 
tion. But  air,  or  rather  oxygen,  is  necessary,  conse- 
quently degp  plajkting_  ajixL^exclusion  ofaj^  retar^_pr 
wkojly_jpr^yenEs  gpowth.  Whether  sj^ds  should  be 
covered  or  not  with  soil  to  assist  or  insure  germination 
Depends  much  upon  circumstances,  as  well  as  upon  their 
^ize^ structure  and  pow^jro^l^jwi^^uj)  their  stems 
through  the  material  usecTfor  covering  them.  .Some 
k^ii d s  of  seeds  will  germinate  far  more  readily  ifjDlacejl 
.on  the  surface  of  the.  soil  and  then  kept  moist  .and  in 
shade  or  total  darkness.  It  may  be  said  that  we  only 
bury  seeds  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  and  not  because 
it  is  actually  necessary  to  insure  germination.  By  cover- 
ing seeds  with  soil  or  other  similar  material,  we  are 
enabled  to  secure  more  equable  conditions  as  regards 
temperature  and  moisture,  as  well  as  the  exclusion  of 
light,  than  if  they  be  left  uncovered,  and  thus  we  secure 
better  and  more  uniform  results  with  less  attention  ;  still, 
i^pjs^willgenejally  penetrate  to  the  required  depth  and 
position  e^e^_wlie^jthe_seed^has  not  jjeen  burjed,  pro- 
vided they  falljipon  some  yielding  materiaj_orpne  readily 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   AND   METHODS.  139 

penetrated  byjb^  joung  rootlets.  Seeds  of  our  common 
forest  trees,  when  they  fall  upon  the  thick  mat  of  old 
leaves,  usually  fail  to  grow  because  the  young  roots  can- 
not penetrate  through  the  tough,  fibrous  material  under- 
neath them ;  but  let  these  seeds  be  scattered  along  the 
roadsides,  or  in  the  open  fields,  or  wherever  they  can  come 
in  direct  contact  with  moist  soil,  and  they  soon  show 
that  they  have  found  congenial  conditions  for  growth. 

^o^general ,rule  can  be  given  in.  regard  to  the- depth 
for  covering  seeds,  not  even  one  that  would  apply  to  all 
the  members  of  the  same  family  of  plants,  because  they 
frequently  differ  in  their  habit  of  growth,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  Peas  and  Beans,  the  cotyledons  of  the  former 
remaining  urrder  ground  and  those  of  the  latter  being 
lifted  above  the  surface  in  the  elongation  of  the  stem  ; 
consequently  we  can  safely  cover  a  small  variety  of  the 
IVa  much  deeper  than  the  largest  variety  of  the  Bean, 
although  both  are  closely  allied  dicotyledonous  plants. 
Similar  variations  also  occur  amoug^the  monp.cotyledon- 
ous  seeds,  the  plumule  or  stem  usually  rising  in  the  form 
of  a  cylindrical  column,  whether  they  are  of  the  size  of  the 
giant  Cocoanui,  or  of  ^ye^^^Wixeat^^oj;  the  still  smaller 
g^asse^s.  Depth,  however,  must  be  varied  somewhat, 
a.ccoi;ding  to  "the  nature  of  .the  soil  in  which  seeds  are 
sown,  for  a  stem  that  would  readily  push  up  through  an 
inch  or  two  of  vegetable  mold  or  of  sapd,  might  be  un- 
able to  pierce  the  same  thickness  of  compact  loam,  or 
tough,  hard^clay. 

When  seeds  have  once  begun  to  grow,  they  cannot  be 
again  reduced  to  a  dormant  state  without  causing  their 
destruction;  this  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  for 
from  this  cause  alone  more  seeds  are  annually  destroyed 
than  from  any  other.  As  they  are  usually  hidden  in 
the  soil,  we  are  very  likely  to  neglect  giving  them  an 
ample  supply  of  moisture  at  their  time  of  greatest  need. 

The  soil  in  which  seeds  are  sown  should  be  made  fine 


140  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

and  reacUly,permeable,  not  only  to_admit,  air  .and  heat 
and  to  retain  moisture,  but  so  that  the  radicle  or  young 
root  may  penetrate  the  earth  without  hindrance,  and 
also  permit  the  stem  to  grow  upright  unimpeded.  The 
soil  should  in  most  cases  be  deep,  and  of  such  a  natnre 
that  the  young  plant  will  receive  a  constant  and  regular 
supply  of  moisture.  Nature  serves  as  a  guide  to  us  in 
many  of  the  operations  connected  with  the  art  of  propa- 
gation ;  yet  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  sowing  of 
Feeds  and  transplanting  are  artificial  operations  instead  of 
natural  ones,  and  we  follow  nature  only  when  it  serves 
our  purpose,  or  as  we  are  compelled  to  do  so  by  natural 
laws.  Nature  is  so  plastic  that  she  allows  us  to  mold  her 
gifts  into  forms  that  meet  our  wants  and  tastes,  confining 
us  only  within,  certain  limits  that  are  difficult  to  de- 
termine. 

^Nature  perfects  as  well  as  destroys,  and  thus  that  equi- 
librium is  preserved  which  is  observable  throughout  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  If  we  scatter  seed  in  every  instance 
exactly  as  is  done  by  nature,  we  should  not  make  more 
than  one  in  ten  thousand  grow. 

While  it  is  quite  obvious  that  seeds  require  moisture 
to  insure  their  germination,  it  is  only  the  acquatic  kinds 
that  will  bear  an  unlimited  amount ;  for,  while  the  seeds 
of  ordinary  field  and  garden  plants  may  sprout  when 
submerged,  they  require  air  to  insure  a  continuous 
growth.  To  keep  a  seed-bed  constantly  soaked  or, satu- 
rated with  water  is  almost  as  injurious  as  -to  allow  the 
seed  to  suffer  for  the  lack  of  a  .sufficient  amount  of  mois- 
^ture,  *  The  propagator  must  always  exercise  his  own  good 
judgment  in  such  matters,  varying  his  treatment  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  nature  of  the  seed  as  well  as  the  kind 
and  condition  of  the  soil. 

Seeds  forced  in  a  high  temperature,  or  sprouted  in  a 
low  one,  usually  produce  feeble  plants.  If  the  tejnpera- 
ture  of  the  soil  is  between  fifty  and  sixty  degrees, -Fah.;. 


GENEBAL  PKIKCIPLES   ASTD  METHODS.  141 

it  will  be  favorable  for  the  germination  of  seeds  of  plants 
indigenous  to  cool  climates  ;  but  a  temperature  of  .§ixty 
to  seventy  degrees  will  be  none  to  high  for  ordinary  green- 
house plants  ;  while  seeds  from  the.  tropics  may  need  ten 
qr  twenty  degrees  higher  temperature. 

While  it  is  generally  conceded  that  new  seeds  are  pref- 
erable to  old  ones,  still  the  idea  of  newness  should  net 
mislead  the  propagator  and  cause  him  to  employ  imma- 
ture seed  ;  for,  in  many  instances,  what  would  be  consid- 
ered a  fully  ripe  seed  has  not  arrived  at  its  best  condition 
for  sowing  or  growth.  Seeds  containing  a  large  amount 
<xf  natural  moisture,  or  sap,  will  often  fail  to  grow  if 
placed  in  the  ground  when  new  and  fresh  ;  but  if  left  to 
dry  a  few  weeks  or  months  and  then  sawn,  they  will  ger- 
minate freely.  I  am  unable  to  give  any  scientific  reason 
for  these  variations,  but  have  learned  from  long  experience 
that  while  freshly  gathered  seeds  of  some  kinds  of  plants 
wjll  fail  to  grow,  after  having  been  dried  for  some  time 
they  germinate  very  readily.  It  would  appear  that  the 
loss  of  natural  moisture  and  shrinking  increases  thejpoyver 
of  ^absorbing  external  moisture,  and  accelerating  the 
chemical  changes  that  take  place  during  germination. 
Buj^jtfjthe  olrying  is  allowed  to  proceed  too  far,  the  vital 
energies  are  diminished  or  wholly  destroyed.  A  period 
of  xrest,  appears  to  be  ne^e^arj^tojthe.^eejls  of  a  large 
majority. of  plants,  while,  on  the  contrary,  there  are  kinds 
.which  must  be  placed  in  a  position  for  growth  before 
losing  much  of  their  natural  moisture,  else  they  fail  to 
germinate.  Feo^instance,  the  seeds  of,  our  indigenous 
White^M&ple  (Acer  dasycarpum),  and  those  of  the  Eed 
Maple  (A.  rubrum),  wiVTnot  withstand  drying,  and  must 
either  grow  within  a  few  days  after  falling  from  the  tree 
or  perish.  JBut^of  the  seeds  of  the  Elm  (Ulmus),  of 
various  species,  ripening  at  the  same  time  as  the  Maples 
named,  and  also  similar  in  structure,  some_will  sprout 
immediately,  while  others  remain  dormant  until  the  fol- 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

lowing  year,  although  all  may  be  treated  exactly  alike. 
The  same  variations  occur  among  many  different  kinds 
of  seeds,  some  germinating  readily  when  freshly  gath- 
ered, others  requiring  a  season  of  rest,  or  time  to  become 
fully  mature.  It  is  well  known  that  there  are  periods  of 
great  activity  and  rest  in  the  vegetation  of  all  countries 
and  climates,  and  these  have  their  influence  upon  the 
seeds,  their  vital  energies  becoming  excited  with  the 
return  of  the  season  of  growth,  and  at  such  times  they 
will  germinate  far  more  readily  than  at  any  other,  al- 
though artificial  surrounding  conditions  may  appear  to 
be  the  same  during  the  period  of  growth  and  when  they 
are  at  rest. 

To  hasten  the  germination  of  seeds,  gardeners  have 
recourse  to  various  expedients.  Steeping  in  different 
solutions  is  often  practised  with  old  seeds,  in  order  to 
soften  the  outer  covering  and  admit.moisture  to  the  in- 
.terior  and  germ.  Seeds  with  hard,  horn-like  integuments, 
like  those  of  the  Three- thorned  Acacia  (Gleditschia  tria- 
canthos),  and  Kentucky  Coffee  tree  (Gymnocladus  Cana- 
densis),  may  usually  be  forced  to  germinate  by  steeping 
a  few  days  in  warm  water,  or  hot  water  may  be  poured 
over  them  and  allowed  to  cool  to  a  temperature  of  about 
100  degrees,  and  kept  at  this  point  until  the  seeds  show 
signs  of  growth.  See4s  incrusted  with  resin,  as  is  usual 
with  the  Junipers,  or  wax,  as  in  the  Bayberry  (Myrica), 
are  benefited  by  steeping  in  a  solution  of  potash,  or  they 
may  be  mixed  with  moist  wood-ashes,  and  kept  in  this 
condition^mjil  the  incrustation  is  removed  and  the  bony 
nuts  are  somewhat  softened.  Potash  solutions  are  to  be 
recommended  as  a  steep  for  all  similar  seeds,  especially 
if  they  have  been  allowed  to  become  dry  and  hard,  or 
when  it  is  desired  to  force  their  germination  in  advance 
of  their  natural  season  of  growth.  Linie  is  also  used  for 
similar  purposes,  and  a  few  years  ago  it  "was  highly  rec- 
ommended by  several  European  horticulturists  for  hasten- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND   METHODS.  143 

ing  the  germination  of  old  Spruce  seeds  and  of  other  coni- 
fers. Humbolt  is  said  to  have  employed  a  dilute  solution 
of  chlorine  with  great  success  in  sprouting  seeds  ;  and 
another  German,  a  Mr.  Otto  of  Berlin,  employed  oxalic 
acid  to  make  old  seed  germinate.  Dr.  Lindley,  in  His 
"  Theory  of  Horticulture,"  describes  Mr.  Otto's  method 
of  using  oxalic  acid,  and  says  that  "  the  seed  were  put  in 
bottles  filled  with  the  acid  and  left  in  it  until  they  germi- 
nated, which  generally  takes  place  in  from  twenty  to 
forty-eight  hours."  The  seeds  are  then  removed  and 
sown  in  the  usual  way.  Very  small  seeds  may  be  sown 
and  diluted  acid  applied  two  or  three  times  a  day  until 
they  germinate. 

Mr.  Otto  claimed  that  by  this  means,  seeds  that  were 
from  twenty  to  forty  years  old  grew,  while  the  same  sort, 
sown  in  the  usual  manner,  did  not  grow  it  all.  But  Dr. 
Lindley,  in  referring  to  the  advantages  claimed  for  the 
acid  process,  says  :  "  Theoretically  it  would  seem  that 
the  effects  described  ought  to  be  produced,  but  general 
experience  does  not  confirm  them ;  and  it  may  be  con- 
ceived that  the  rapid  abstraction  of  carbon  by  the  pres- 
ence of  an  unnaturally  large  quantity  of  oxygen  may 
produce  effects  as  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  seed  as 
its  too  slow  destruction  in  consequence  of  the  languor  of 
the  vital  principle/*' 

The  oxalic  acjbd  solution  for  accelerating  the  germina- 
tion of  seeds,  although  highly  extolled  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery,  has,  like  many  other  similar  discoveries,  gone 
out  of  use  and  is  almost  forgotten.  At  the  present  day 
our  horticulturists  depend  mainly  upon  heat  and  moisture 
for  revivifying  the  dormant  energies  of  their  old  as  well 
as  new  seeds,  although,  as  I  have  said,  the  alkaline  solu- 
tions are  very  useful  in  softening  and  removing  natural 
incrustations  of  some  kinds,  and  the  hard,  horn-like 
covering  of  others.  Frost,  or  freezing,  is  also  useful  for 
this  purpose,  and  always  available  in  cold  climates  ;  but 


144  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

heat  answers  the  same  purpose  for  opening  the  pores  and 
admitting  moisture  to  the  seed  proper  ;  and  while  jn  cold 
climates,  nuts  and  other  hard  shelled  seeds  are  placed 
wjiere  they  will  freeze  in  winter,  the  same  kinds  sprout 
just  as  freely  in  hot  climates,  provided  they  are  ]sept 
moist  and  warm  during  the  same  season. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


PROPAGATION  BY  ^CUTTINGS. 


_GrRjOWTH. — There  are  many  kinds  of  trees, 
and  shrubs  that  are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
jnajhije  or  ripened  wood.  Sometimes  Avood  two  or  more 
years  old  is  used  for  this  purpose,. but  with  most  kinds 
that  of  on%season's  growth  produces  roots  ni  ore.  .readily. 
The  cuttings  are  usually  taken  from  the  parent  stoqk  in 
the^fall  of  the  year,  as  soon  as  the  leaves  of  deciduous 
plants'will  part  from  the  stem  without  injury  to  the  buds 
adjacent. 

Autumn  is  also  a  proper  time  to  make  cuttings  of  many 
kinds  of  evergreen  plants,  particularly  those  of  hardy 
trees  and  shrubs  indigenous  to  temperate  climates.  A 
branch,  when  it  ceases  to  grow  in  summer  or  .autumn, 
contains  a  la?ge  amount  of  matter  which  has  njot  assumed 
any  special  form  or  structure,  and  it  is  therefore  in  a 
proper  condition  either  to  produce  roots  or  branches. 
With  some  kinds  of  plants  it  can  be  made  to  produce  the 
former  verjTreadily ;  with  others  it  is  quite  jljj^ cult, 
simply  because  we  have  not  discovered  the  proper  condi- 
tion necessary  for  their  development ;  and  it  is  just  here 
that  we  come  upon  the  great  secret  in  the  propagation  of 
plants — i.  e.}  under  what  conditions  should  cuttings  of 


PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS,  145 

a  particular  plant  be  placed  to  insure  growth  ?  Cut- 
tings of  the  Willow,  Currant,  and  many  other  woody 
plants,  grow  very  freely,  even  if  taken  from  the  parent 
stock  at  almost  any  time  of  year  ;  while  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  branch  from  a  Hickory  tree  produce  roots 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions ;  yet  it  may  not 
be  among  the  impossibilities  to  propagate  the  Hick- 
ories from  cuttings.  The  horticulturist,  however,  does 
not  usually  seek  the  most  difficult  methods  of  multiply- 
ing plants,  but  the  easiest,  and  there  may  be  many  ways 
of  producing  the  same  result. 

As  it  requires  more  or  less  time  for  a  cutting  to  pro- 
duce roots,  it  is  better  to  allow  an  abundance  than  too 
little  ;  consequently,  we  usually  make  the  cuttings  of  the 
mature  and  dormant  wood  in  the  autumn,  because  by 
doing  so  we  secure  several  months  in  which  to  produce 
the  change  ;  or,  in  other  words,  for  roots  to  form.  Eoot^ 
are  produced  readily  at  a  lower  temperature  than  leaves — 
also  in  tKe~3ark — and  these  jxmditions  are  easily  secured, 
evan  in  cold  climates  ;  for  if  the  earth  is  frozen  on  the 
surface,  it  may  still  be  warm  enough  below  to  afford  suffi- 
cient warmth  to  insure  the  formation  of  roots  on  the 
cuttings  of  woody  plants  native  of  a  similar  climate.  We 
avail  ourselves  of  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  and  make 
the  cuttings  of  hardy  plants  in  the  fall,  and  either  plant 
them  immediately  where  they  are  to  grow,  giving  further 
protection  if  necessary,  or  bury  them  in  a  cellar  or  the 
open  ground  ;  in  fact,  almost  anywhere  that  we  can  secure 
a  temperature  but  slightly  above  the  freezing  point, 
but  not  so  warm  as  to  force  the  leaf- buds  into  grpwth. 

In  such  situations  the  process  of  forming  roots  will  go 
xm^ncl  some  kinds  willvusually  become  so  l^ll^uppl^ed 
with  roots  by  the  time  the  regular  growing  season  com- 
mences in  the  spring,  that  a  vigorous  early  growth  of 
stem  will  be  produced.  These  conditions  are  produced 
naturally  in  the  open  ground,  for  the  temperature  of  the 


146  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

soil  mspring  is  generally  warmer  than  the  atmosphere, 
and  tliefTower  end  of  a  cutting,  from  which  point  it  is 
always  desirable  to  have  the  roots  produced,  receives 
more  heat  than  that  portion  which  is  exposed  to  the  air. 
In  latitudes  where  the  ground  freezes  to  a  considerable 
depth,  every  one  who  has  ever  taken  the  trouble  to  exam- 
ine the  soil  at  the  time  of  its  thawing  out  in  spring,  must 
have  noticed  that  it  thaws  from  below  upward,  far  more 
rapidly  than  from  the  surface,  downward.  Heat  descends 
slowly,  but  cold  rapidly,  and  just  as  soon  as  the  weather 
becomes  so  warm  that  the  surface  does  not  freeze,  the 
heat  from  below  will  rise  to  the  surface.  The  hot-bed 
used  by  gardeners  in  forcing  vegetables  in  cold  climates 
is  made  on  the  same  principle,  the  object  being  to  secure 
warmth  for  the  roots,  while  the  leaves  and  upper  portions 
of  the  plant  are  kept  cool.  Thus  plants  are  forced  with 
what  is  termed  "bottom  heat." 

In  warm  climates  it  is  just  as  important  to  give  the 
cutting  plenty  of  time  to  form  roots,  or  the  advance 
process^callejl  a  callus.,  as  in  cold  ones  ;  for  if  roots  are 
not  formed  when  the  leaves  expand,  the  cutting  is  very 
likely  to  die.  The  callus  which  always  precedes  the,  for- 
mation of  rpots  on  all  kinds  of  cuttings,  whether  from 
ripe  or  green  wood,  leaves  or  roots,  is  composed  of  cellu- 
lar matter  formed  principally  from  the  assimilated  sap 
of  the  plant,  and  is  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  nutrients 
stored  up  in  seeds  for  nourishing  the  embryo  and  young 
plantlet ;  and  while  the  callus  does  not  itself  become  a 
root,  it  is  the  immediate  source  from  which  the  young 
rootlet  on  a  cutting  obtains  nutriment.  By  a  close  ex- 
amination of  the  callus  on  a  cutting  at  the  time  the  young 
rootlets  are  pushing  out,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the 
roots  are  distinct  formations,  and  not  in  any  manner  the 
result  of  an  unfolding  or  prolongation  of  the  irregular 
masses  of  exuded  matter  which  is  termed  the  callus. 

Cuttings  that  are  jemovedjrom^  a  Cellar  or  other  plajee, 


PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS. 


wjiepe  they  have  been  sjored  during  the  winter  months, 
to  the  open  ground,  n  eedTto^Beh  andled  with  gr^at  care,, 
especially  if  well  callused  and  young  roots  have  commenced 
to  push  out ;  for  any  considerable  exposure  to  the  light, 
to  drying  winds,  or  to  rough  handling,  will  check  the 
root-forming  process,  if  it  does  not  entirely  prevent 
further  progress  toward  growth.  In  taking  out  cuttings 
of  this  kind  for  planting,  they  should  be  laid  carefully 
in  rather  shallow  boxes,  kept  shaded,  and  occasionally 
sprinkled  if  necessary  to  keep  them  moist  while  being  set 
out.  If  kept  moist  or  wet  the  soil  will  adhere  to  them 
closely,  and  the  new  roots  come  into  immediate  contact 
with  nutriment.  If^the_grouud  in  which  the-  cuttings  are 
to  be  planted  is  rather  dry  and  of  a  loose  nature,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  puddle  the  cuttings  before  taking  them  to 
the  place  where  they  are  to  be  planted.  Puddling  con- 
sists merely  in  mining  water  with  almost  .any  good  soil  or 
clay,  forming  a  composition  of  the  consistency  of  thin 
mortar ;  the  lower  half  or  a  little  more  of  the  cuttings 
are  dipped  in  this,  coating  the  part  immersed  in  mud, 
which  will  adhere  and  prevent  too  rapid  drying,  as  well 
as  protect  the  cutting  from  injury  by  light  and  air  during 
the  operation  of  planting.  Peddling  cuttings,  as  well  as 
the  roots  of  plants,  is  practised  extensively  by  gardeners 
and  nurserymen  as  a  ready  means  of  giving  temporary 
protection  during  transit  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 
another,  and  also  when  transplanting  in  their  own  ground. 
Where  the  climate  will  permit  it,  the  proper  time  to 
plant  cuttings  is  as  soon  as  they  are  made  inautumn, 
thereoy  avoi4inj£_all^  the  timeTrleyare 

forming  a  callus  or  producing  roots  ;  hut  in  cold  climates 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  give  protection  ol  some  kind 
during  the  winter  by  pj^cing  the  cuttings  in  a  position 
whfcre  the  root-forming  process  may  not  be  wholly  sus- 
pended, even  during  the  coldest  weather.  The  cuttings 
of  some  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs  will  grow  freely  under 


148  PKOPAGATIOX   OF   PLANTS. 

almost  any  treatment,  while  others  require  all  the  care 
that  can  possibly  be  bestowed  upon  them  to  insure  the 
emission  of  roots  and  their  future  growth. 

j^uccess^in  growing  such  cuttings  in  the  open  air  often 
depends  as  much  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the 
mode  of  planting  as  upon  their  proper  selection  and.care 
during  the  preparatory  stages.  The^soji  in  which  cut- ' 
tings  are  planted  in  the  open  ground  should  hgjleep,  of 
a  ^orcnjg  nature,  and  composed  of  matgrials^tliat  will 
absorb  and  retain .  a  regular  supply  of  moisture.  The 
variatijjfi  of  climate  should  be  Attended  with  a  corres- 
ponding varia^ionjn^sxiil,  which  inwarmjatitudes  should 
contain  powerful  absorbents,  so  that  it  will  not  become 
tQO^Arjjj^sumn^r  ;  while  a  ^ojl  for  the  same  purpose^ 
the  more  nort^rn  latitiides  would  be  better  wothput 
these  absorbents.  In  this  latitude  a  loainy  soil  of  fine 
texture  is  perhaps  the  best ;  one  that  is  not  so  fine  as  to 
ca^e^and  crack  on  the  surface  after  heavy  showers,  or 
so  loose  that  it  will  not  retain  sufficient  moisture  to  sup- 
ply the  wants  of  the  cuttings.  The  amount  of  moisture 
required  by  cuttings  varies  greatly  in  different  species, 
some"  requiring  little,  while  others  a  very  large  amount. 
The  Poplars.  Willows,  Sycamore  and  many  other  kinds 
of  trees  and  shrubs  will  grow  readily,  even  if  the  lower 
end  of  the  cuttings  are  immersed  in  water  containing  but 
very  little  nutriment.  But,  as  a  general  rule,  cuttings 
do  not  require  more  moisture  than  is  held  in  suspen- 
sion m  well  drained  and  friable  soils. 

Rank  substances,  such  as  uudecayed  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal matter,  should  never  be  allowed  near  cuttings  ;  and 
where  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  manure,  it  should  always 
t^eoljd,  well  decomposed,  and  thoroughly  intermingled 
with  the  soil,  and  applied  some  time  before  the  cuttings 
are  planted. 

Some  propagators  plant  their  cuttings  and  then  cover 
the  surface  of  the  ground  with  manure,  the  juices  of 


PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS. 


149 


which  will  percolate  the  soil  at  every  shower  and  furnish 
nutriment  in  solution  to  the  roots.  I  have  found  this  to 
answer  well  in  some  seasons,  while  in  others  a  inn£u,s 
(Mushroom)  would  spread  through  the  maimre,  and  when 
it  came  in  qojita£t^\yjih  the  young  growth  on  the  Qutting 
it  was  very  likej^tojjestroy  it.  This,  however,  can  be 
prevented  by  frequently  stirring  the  manure,  and  I  may 
remark  that  frequent  stirring  the  surface  soil  is  almost 
equal  to  mulching  for  keeping  the  cutting-bed  moist. 
In  some  soils,  and  in  hot  and  dry  cljjnateg, 
coverjnj^^j$u£^e^  coarse 

hay,  straw,  spent  ta^bark  or  spent  hops  from 
the  breweries,  and  other  similar  materials, 
will  be  of  great  service  in  keepin^the  soil 
moisjt  and  of  an  equable  temperature. 

MA^JTG  CUTTINGS. — Nearly  all  plants_emjt 
roots  mo^rre^dily  at  or  neajHjheir  bujis joj: 
joints  than  elsewhere  ;  therefore, 
in  making  Quttings,  it  isalways 
well  to  sever  them  ji^st  bejg^a., 
Iju^orjjuds,  ^s^shown  in~TIgure 

a  point  from  which  roots  appear 
to  be  produced  most  freely.  It  is 
true  that  some  kinds  of  plants, 
like  the  Willow,  Catalpa,  and  the 
common  Quince,  emit  roots  very 
readily  from  every  part  of  the 
Fig.  49.  stem,  and  with  these  it  is  not 

CUTTING  £UT>  , .  l .  .          _• ,  ,  Flff.  50. 

jTi§TBEj#w  necessary  that  they  should  be  cut   CUTTING  OF 
T%3^8-   o^bej^w^^.     With  some  6THOLLOWSTEM- 
the  hollow  stemined  plants,  or  those  having  a  large  pith, 
Jike  the  Supir  Cane  and  Bamboos  among  the  large  grasses, 
orThe  Mo^F0fange,Syringa  (PMladelplms) ,  and  Deutzias 
among  shrubs,  the  orifice  is  usually  entirely  (^psed^jar 
as  shown  in  figurj3j>0;  or  opposite 


150  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

the  buds  on  the  young  stems  ;  and  it  must  be  apparent 
that  there  will  be  less  liability  of  water  lodging  within 
the  stem  and  causing  decay  if  the  .cutting  is  severed  just 
below  the  joint  than  at  any  other  point. 

The  roots  produced  on  a  cutting  are  sjrrjposed^  to  be 
formed  from  the  sup  or  assimilated  juices  of  the  plant, 
deposited  mainly  between  the  bark  and  wood ;  but  the 
stems  and  branches  of  some  kinds  of  woody  plants,  hav- 
ing a  large  pith  or  hollow  stem,  will  throw  out  roots 
from  the  inner  portion,  but  this  does  not  disprove  the 
general  theory  of  circulation  of  the  sap,  or  that  roots 
emanate  only  from  the  assimilated  sap  or  nascent  matter ; 
because  it  is  not  impossible,  nor  contrary  to"  the  general 
principles  of  vegetable  physiology,  that  a  portion  of  the 
true  sap  of  exogenous  plants  may  not  pass  from  the  outer 
to  the  inner  surface  of  the  stems  of  young  wood,  at  least 
when  placed  under  artificial  conditions. 

There  are  some  authors  who  contend  that  a  bud,  either 
latent  or  developed,  is  essential  on  a  branch  to  enable  it 
to  produce  roots  ;  in  other  words,  roots  always  proceed 
directly  from  a  bud ;  and  if  a  cutting  is  severed  at  a  dis- 
tance below  a  bud,  the  roots  start  from  the  lowermost 
one  and  push  their  way  down  under  the  bark  and  out  at 
the  end,  establishing  a  communication  with  the  source 
from  which  they  are  to  derive  their  future  nourishment. 
It  was  also  claimed  by  some  of  the  old  vegetable  physiol- 
ogists, that  in  the  same  manner  all  the  buds  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  which  do  not  grow  upright  and  form 
branches,  produce  roots  by  going  down,  overlapping  and 
intermingling  with  those  produced  below  them. 

The  erroneous  theory  of  roots  emanating  only  from 
buds  doubtless  originated  from  the  fact  that  many  kinds 
grow  more  readily  from  cuttings  if  they  are  cut  off  close 
to  the  base  of  a  bud,  as  before  stated,  thereby  strength- 
ening the  belief  that  at  this  point  was  located  the  mate- 
rials from  which  roots  are  formed.  To  ascertain  whether 


PROPAGATION   BY   CUTTINGS.  151 

buds  on  ligneous  plants  must  exist  on  or  within  a  cutting 
to  enable  it  to  produce  roots,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take 
a  section  of  the  stem  between  the  buds  (called  the  inter- 
node),  of  some  kind  of  plant  that  has  no  latent  buds — for 
instance,  a  young  shoot  of  a  Grapevine,  or  closely  allied 
plant,  and  make  such  a  cutting  produce  roots,  which  it 
will  readily  do  if  placed  under  favorable  conditions.  No 
buds  will  be  produced  or  appear,  yet  roots  will  be  pro- 
duced more  or  less  abundantly,  or  in  proportion  to  the 
natural  vitality  of  the  cutting  and  the  amount  of  avail- 
able material  which  it  contains.  Of  course  the  roots 
cannot  grow  to  any  considerable  size,  or  for  any  consid- 
erable period  of  time,  without  the  assistance  of  buds  and 
leaves  for  assimilating  the  nutriments  which  the  new 
roots  absorb  from  surrounding  materials. 

That  roots  will  live  and  continue  to  grow  for  longer  or 
shorter  periods,  drawing  sustenance  from  the  material 
previously  stored  up  in  the  plant,  and  upon  that  which 
they  absorb  without  the  assistance  of  leaves  or  buds,  is 
too  well  known  to  be  questioned.  The  tubers  of  herba- 
ceous Pseomas  and  Dahlias,  the  thick  fleshy  roots  of  the 
common  Rhubarb  and  many  similar  plants,  will,  when 
deprived  of  buds,  live  and  continue  to  emit  new  roots  for 
an  entire  season,  and  even  for  a  longer  period,  but  event- 
ually perish,  as  they  do  not  seem  to  possess  the  power  of 
producing  buds,  except  at  the  crown  of  the  plant,  where 
there  is  always  a  large  number  of  buds. 

The  proper  length,  to  make  cuttings  will  necessarily 
^ary  somewhat,  acGQJidm^J^o.tl^cjiaracteiuof  the  plant 
f  ixmjLjvhich  they  are  made,  a^well  asjhejn^nn^nj^lan^- 
ing^them.  Quttmg£  of  .someEi^^ofJr^es  that  produce 
roots  very  freelyTTik6  the  Willows  and  some  of  the  Pop- 
lars, may  be  several  feet.m  length,  especially  if  set  in 
moist  or  wet  soils ;  while  the  other  extreme  in  size  may  be 
a  single  bud  with  an  inch  or  tAvo  of  the  branch  attached. 
The  single  bud  cutting  is  often  employed  with  free-root- 


152  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

ing  kinds  of  trees,  vines  and  shrubs  of  rare  kinds,  the 
cutting  being  laid  down  in  a  shallow  trench,  or  set  up- 
right, and  then  Qoyered  to  the  depth  of  a  half  inch  or  a 
little  more  with  light  soil,  or  some  material  that  will 
retain  moisture  well,  ,and  at  the  same  time  permit  the 
young  shoots  to.  push  readily  thrqugh  it.  Single  bud,  or 
very  short  cuttings,  when  planted  in  the  open  ground, 
require  more  attention  than  longer  ones,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent injury  during  dry  weather  ;  still,  with  proper  care, 
they  will  usually  make  excellent  and  vigorous  plants. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  niost  convenient  lengths  for  what 
are  called  ripe-  wood  cuttings  of  deciduous  trees  and 
shrubs,  are  from  six  to  ten  inches,  although  they  are  .of  ten 
made  much  longer,  which  is  not  only  a  waste  of  material, 
but  quite  frequently  a  disadvantage  when  planting  them  ; 
for  in  order  to  bury  the  cutting  its  entire  length,  as  usu- 
ally practised,  it  must  either  be  set  at  an  acute  angle  or 
the  lower  end  placed  almost  beyond  the  influence  of  solar 

heat,  an  element  as  essen- 
tial for  the  production  and 
growth  of  roots  on  cuttings 
planted  in  the  open  air,  as 
for  the  germination  of  seeds. 
Planting  jsuttings  too  deep 
should  be  avoided,  ^s  the 
farther  from  the  surface 

Fig.  51.-TRENCH  FOR  CUTTINGS. 


they  Deceive,  and  this  is  quite  necessary  to  insure  rapid 
growth,  especially  after  they  haveBecbme  well  rooted. 

PLANTING  THE  CUTTINGS.  —  The  surface  of  a  cutting- 
bed  should  be  level,  smooth,  free  from  lumps  and  stones. 
Draw  a  line  across  .the  bed  and  dig  a  trench,  by  placing 
the  back  of  the  spade  against  the  lineTpressing  it  down 
nearly  perpendicularly  ;  then  throw  out  the  soil  to  one 
side,  making  a  trench,  as  shown  in  figure  51,  Place  the 
juttings  against  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  trench,  as 


PKOPAGATIOX  BY  CUTTINGS. 


153 


shown,  and  t^coto  six  inches  apart — according  to  the 
size  and  kiud  of  jsuttmg  planteo^-and 

the^oot,  or  wjth 


^_^~  and  Rress.it  _____=^_</   7  -  ^^ 

poundejc  made  from  a  piece  of  two-inch  plank,  shown  / 
in  figu4^J>2v^Afte£J;iLe.^^  about  - 

tlie  basejjfjhe  cutting,  the  tr^nch^may  be^JeTuJ^Hjef  ) 

of 

plants  the  packing  or  firming  of  the  soil  around  the  low 
end^of^the^cuttings  is  a  very  'essential  pofrrt;'and 
the  whole  secret  of  success.     This  is  particularly  so  w 
those  kinds  that  pro- 
d  uce  roots  mainly  from 
the  lower  end,    where 
the  wood  is  exposed  to 
the   soil.      It   is    true  Fis- 

that  cuttings  of  sonie  kinds  of  trees. and -sjyuljg  will  grow 
readily  4f  merejy_jyyuist_into^the  ground,  alinpst  any- 
where, and  at  any  season  ;  but  to  raise  such  plants  re- 
quires nemrerexperience  nor  skill ;  consequently  they 
only  call  for  a  passing  notice. 

The  distance  between  the  rows  of  cuttings  will  Depend 
entirely  upon,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  culti- 
vated. If  a  cultivator  or  plow  is  to  be  used,  then  the 
rows  should  be  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart ;  but  if 
to  be  cultivated  entirely  with  the  j«)e,  one  and  a  halinj) 
two  feet. wide/ will  be  sufficient.  In^  £onie.^pjla-aaidjcj> 
raised  from  cuttings  may  be  left  Jin  the 
ground 
ti 


luring  the 

In  making  antTplan ting  cuttings  of  the  ripe  or  dormant 
wgod  of  evergreen  jplan,ts,  tlie  sa!ne^genfiraT^5lah  should 
be  pursued  as  with  deciduous  plants,  except  that  the  cut- 
tings are  .not  usually  made  as  long,  and  they  must  n^t  JD&- 


154  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

entirely  excluded  from  the  light,  or  wholly  buried  in  the 
soil ;  ^orjn  making  them,  the  leaves  arc  left,  on  that 
part  of  the  cutting  which  remains  above  ground  when 
planted.  If^cover^dj  entirely,  a§  we  do  with  decidu- 
ous cuttings,  they  would  soon.Nlec#y.  The  leaves  of 
our  hardy  evergreen  coniferous  plants  are  covered 
with  a  compact  epidermis,  which  does  not  permit 
them  to  either  absorb  or  exhale  moisture  very  rapidly 
when  in  a  dormant  state,  and  this  peculiarity  in  struc- 
ture admits  of  their  being  placed  in  such  a  position  that 
roots  will  form  while  their  leaves  do  not  suffer.  In  cold 
climates  they  should  be  placed  in  what  are  termed  cold 
frames,  and  covered  with  glass  that  has  been  dimmed 
with  some  kind  of  a  wash  that  will  prevent  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  reaching  them,  and  still  admit  sufficient 
light  to  keep  them  in  health.  In  the  coldest  weather  the 
frames  may  be  covered  with  straw  mats  to  keep  out  the- 
cold  and  prevent  severe  freezing.  The  Arbor-vitees, 
Evergreen  Box,  Yews  and  Junipers,  are  quite  readily 
propagated  from  cuttings  made  of  the  dormant  wood  in 
the  fall,  although  this  mode  of  propagating  these  trees  is 
seldom  practised,  probably  because  there  are  others  less 
hazardous,  and  perhaps  more  convenient. 


CHAPTEE    XII. 

BY  CUTTINGS  OFJMMATURE  GROWTHS. 
~ —     ^s*^Z . —    -• 

"When  propagating  by  quttings  of  the  young,  growing, 
>wopjiLop  succulent  parts  of  "l^erbaceous  plants,  we^ar^ 
operating  with  an  active  vegetation  instead  of  one  that  is 
dormant.  In  the  cuttings  made  from  ripe  wood,  there 
is  a  supply  of  organized  material  from  which  roots  are 
produced  ;  but  in  those  made'from  the  young  and  grow- 
ing parts  of  plants,  this  is  only  jnji  state  of  transmutation, 


BY   CUTTINGS    OF   IMMATURE   GROWTHS.  155 

and  we  aim  to  continue  or  accelerate  the  change,  and  not 
to  check  it  by  our  operations.  To  accomplish  this,  it  is 
generally  necessary  to  anrround  the  cutting  with  a  warm, 
moist,,  and  somewhat  confined  atmosphere,  .so  that  the 
exhalation,  which  is  very  rapid  in  an  open  situation,  can 
bo  controlled.  II'  the  quantity  of  moisture  given  off  by 
the  leaves  is  greater  than  that  absorbed,  then  they  will 
surely  droop,  and  artificial  applications  will  be  required 
to  revive  them. 

Various  devices  are  employed  by  propagators  to  secure 
that  peculiar  state  or  condition  of  the  atmosphere  most 
suitable  to  the  growth  of  cuttings  of  different  kinds  of 
plants,  (rlass  is  the  principal  material  used  for  covering 
propagating  houses,  because  it  is  the  most  durable,  and 
through  it  plan£s  receive  light,  which  is  indispensable  to 
the  growth  of  all  those  belonging  to  the  higher  orders  ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  heat  and  moisture  are  under  the 
control  of  the  propagator.  These  houses  may  be  made 
of  almost  any  size  or  form  to  suit  the  convenience  or  taste 
of  the  owner,  but  those  with  a  double  pitch  or  span  roof, 
as  shown  in  figure  53,  are  the  most  common,  and  probably 
the  most  convenient  for  heating  and  ventilating,  as  well 
as  exposure  to  the  light  and  direct  rays  of  the  sun  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  day. 

The  illustration  on  page  156  shows  the  interior  per- 
spective view  of  a  section  of  a  well-arranged  propagating 
house.  It  may  be  made  of  almost  any  desired  length  or 
width,  but  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  is  about  the  usual 
width  of  a  span-roof  house  of  this  kind. 

The  side  walls  of  the  house  may  be  of  brick,  stone, 
concrete,  or  other  durable  material,  and  in  very  cold  cli- 
mates it  is  well  to  bank  them  up  on  the  outside  with 
earth,  and  sod  over  the  embankment.  The  house  should 
stand  with  ends  north  and  south,  although  a  slight  devi- 
ation from  this  direction  will  not  be  a  serious  objection. 
The  side  walls  should  be  low,  not  more  than  four  or 


156 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF  IMMATURE   GROWTHS.  157 

five  feet  high,  and  a  row  of  low  frames  may  be  placed 
under  the  eaves  on  the  sides,  as  shown  in  figure  53,  or  be 
omitted,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  builder  or  nature 
of  the  plants  to  be  propagated. 

The  glass  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  double 
thickness  is  preferable  to  the  single.  Embed  the  glass 
with  putty,  and  fasten  with  glaziers'  tins,  but  put  no 
putty  on  the  outside  ;  use  nothing  but  thick  white  lead 
paint  in  the  joints  between  glass  and  sash.  The  size  of 
glass  is  immaterial,  but  if  the  best  and  heaviest  is  used, 
the  panes  may  be  of  any  size,  from  seven  by  nine  up  to 
ten  by  sixteen,  or  even  larger.  Large  sized  glass,  however, 
is  more  expensive  than  small ;  it  breaks  quite  as  readily  ; 
consequently,  repairs,  where  large  sized  panes  are  used, 
are  likely  to  be  the  most  costly.  The  furnace  and  potting 
room  should  be  placed  at  the  north  end  of  the  house,  if 
such  an  arrangement  can  be  made  without  inconvenience, 
and  then  the  south  end  may  be  of  glazed  sash,  as  shown 
in  figure  53. 

The  best  and  most  economical  mode  of  heating  a  large 
house  is  by  hot  water.  For  this  purpose  there  are  several 
kinds  of  boilers  in  market,  each  of  which  has  its  friends 
among  the  florists  and  nurserymen,  but  all  of  those  now 
in  common  use  are  economical,  safe,  and  generally  give 
satisfaction.  The  hot- water  pipes  should  lie  side  by  side, 
although  they  are  sometimes  placed  one  over  the  other, 
when  it  is  inconvenient,  for  want  of  space,  to  place  them 
the  other  way.  The  flow- pipe  passes  under  one  of  the 
side  frames,  thence  through  the  back  under  the  middle 
one,  and  then  under  the  frame  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
return-pipe  passes  back  along  by  its  side,  both  lying  on 
iron  rests  made  for  the  purpose.  This  arrangement  gives 
eight  pipes  the  whole  length  of  the  house,  besides  the 
elbows  and  the  few  feet  that  it  takes  to  cross  the  end. 
The  center  frame  has  four  pipes  under  it,  while  those  on 
the  sides  have  but  two.  In  mild  climates,  where  less 


158  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

artificial  heat  is  required  in  winter,  the  pipes  may  pass 
only  under  the  two  outside  frames,  and  the  center  one 
may  be  used  for  the  plants  after  they  have  become  well 
rooted,  or  for  other  purposes.  For  convenience  in  reach- 
ing the  plants,  and  economy  of  space,  the  center  stage  or 
frame  is  made  double  the  width  of  the  side  frames,  and 
the  depth  of  all  depends  upon  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  to  be  used.  If  for  small  cuttings  only,  then  they 
may  be  quite  shallow — not  more  than  six  to  eight  inches 
deep  ;  but  if  grafting  is  to  be  done,  then  a  greater  depth 
will  be  required,  or  from  one  to  two  feet  in  depth  ;  but 
if  the  house  is  to  be  a  kind  of  "general  utility  house"  in 
propagating  plants,  then  the  frames  may  be  made  of 
various  sizes  and  depths.  The  center  frames  may  be 
deep  enough  to  hold  potted  stocks  of  good  size,  and  the 
side  frames  must  be  shallow,  for  growing  small  cuttings. 
The  pipes  under  the  frames  should  be  entirely  shut  in, 
so  that  the  greatest  heat  in  the  house  will  be  under  the 
frames,  in  order  to  give  what  is  termed  "bottom  heat" 
to  the  cuttings,  exciting  root-growth  in  preference  to 
growth  of  the  leaf  and  stems.  There  should  be  small 
doors  placed  along  the  entire  length,  opening  into  the 
passage-ways,  that  may  be  opened  to  let  the  heat  escape 
into  the  house  when  necessary  to  raise  its  temperature, 
or  to  lower  that  under  the  frames.  The  passage-ways 
between  the  beds  should  not  be  less  than  two  and  a  half 
feet  wide,  and  three  will  be  better.  If  the  frames  are 
over  four  feet  wide  it  will  be  inconvenient  to  reach  across 
them,  and  a  house  eighteen  feet  wide  will  allow  of  three 
rows  of  frames,  and  two  passage-ways  of  three  feet  each  ; 
or  the  outside  frames  may  be  three  feet  wide,  and  the 
center  one — as  it  can  be  reached  from  both  sides — may 
be  six  feet. 

Arrangements  for  ventilating  the  house  may  be  made 
to  suit  one's  convenience  or  fancy,  but  the  openings 
should  be  mainly  at  the  top  or  near  the  peak  of  the  roof. 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF  IMMATURE   GROWTHS.  159 

The  slope  of  the  roof  should  be  at  an  angle  of  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty-five  degrees,  varying  somewhat  according  to 
latitude,,  although  water,  snow  and  ice  will  pass  off  more 
readily  from  a  steep  roof  than  a  flat  one.  A  single  roof, 
or  lean-to,  propagating  house  is  perhaps  a  little  more 
economical  than  a  span  roof  in  very  cold  climates  ;  being 
less  exposed  to  cold  winds,  it  takes  less  fuel  to  heat  it. 
Its 'construction  and  interior  arrangement  may  be  the 
same  as  the  span  roof,  only  the  center  frame,  or  table,  is 
divided  lengthways  by  the  main  or  back  wall,  which 
should  run  east  and  west,  in  order  to  have  the  roof  slope 
to  the  south.  The  lean-to  house  may  be  just  one  half 
the  width  of  the  span  roof,  or  a  little  wider  if  necessary, 
and  the  furnace-room,  potting  and  storing  sheds,  should 
extend  the  entire  length  of  the  back  wall  as  a  protection. 
While  professional  gardeners  depend  mainly  on  a  regu- 
larly constructed  propagating  house  for  multiplying  those 


Fig.  54.— LATH  SCREENS. 

plants  requiring  artificial  heat  to  force  them  to  produce 
roots,  they  often  employ  other  means  and  structures, 
such  as  the  ordinary  hot-bed,  where  a  high  temperature 
and  bottom  heat  are  secured  by  the  use  of  stable  manure, 
leaves  from  the  woods,  spent  hops,  anoT  other  kinds  of 
fresh  vegetable  substances,  wluch  gen erj^te Jiea^lri ring 
fermentation.  In  summer  the  ordinary  hot-bed  frames 
may  be  employed  without  bottom  heat  for  multiplying 
majiyykinds^  of  |)la^ts.vfrom  i^reon. cuttings,  especially 
those  known  to  produce  roots  freely  and  with  Httle^care, 


160 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


when  placed  in  a  confined,  moist,  and  rather  warm 
atmosphere.  When  grown  in  frames  in  the  open  ground, 
the  cuttings  will  need  to  be  shaded  the  same  as  when 
planted  in  the  house,  and  this  maybe  given  by  using  lath 
screens,  as  shown  in  figure  54,  or  the  glass  maybe  dimmed 
by  applying  with  a  brush  a  wash  made  of  skim  milk  with 
common  whiting.  The  cuttings  in  frames  will  need  at- 
tention when  growing,  for  water  must  be  regularly  sup- 
plied, and  airjidmitted  occasionally  to  prevent  the  tem- 
perature from  reaching  too  high  a  point  during  wjirm, 
bright  days.  Common  white  muslin,  made  water-proof, 
or  coated  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  well  dried  before 


Fig.  55.— HAND  GLASS. 


Fig    56.— BELL  GLASS. 


using,  may  be  employed  for  covering  the  frames  in  which 
cuttings  are  rooted  during  the  summer  months,  but  glass 
is  preferable,  and  as  it  is  so  much  more  durable,  it  is  in 
the  end  the  cheapest. 

What  are  called  hand  glasses  (figure  ,55),  and  bell 
glasses  (figure  V56),  may  often  be  employed  with  advan- 
tage, wjiere  onjy  a  fqw  cuttjugs  are  to  be  raised,  either  in 
the  open  ground  or  in  an  ordinary  greenhouse.  These 
glasses  are  also  useful  in  covering  delicate  seeds  and  the 
spores  of  ferns,  which,  owing  to  their  minute  size  and 
fragile  structure,  cannot  safely  be  buried  in  ordinary  soil. 

IN  WHAT  MATERIALS  TO  PLANT  CUTTINGS. — Various 
kinds  of  materials  have  been  recommended,  and  are  still 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF   IMMATURE   GROWTHS.  161 

used,  in  which  to  root  cuttincrs  made  of  the  green  and 
immature  parts  of  plant-.  $fu->[.  burnt  clay  or  pulver- 
ized brick7~chareoal,  peat,  Sphagnum  nooss,  and  various 
combinations  of  these  and  other  materials,  have  been 
employed  by  propagators  ;  and  while  any  one,  or  all  of 
them,  may  sometimes  answer  the  purpose,  still,  the.  more 
delicate  the  cutting,  and  difficult  the  plant  is  to  propa- 
gate in  this  way,  the  purer  must  be  the  material  in  which 
the  cuttings  are  set  to  insure  the  production  of  roots.  In 
a  previous  chapter  I  have  shown  that  the  exposed  cells  of 
a  branch  or  leaf  taken  from  certain  plants  will  imbibe 
various  poisons  and  colored  liquids  presented  to  them, 
which  are  successfully  resisted  by  the  roots  of  the  same 
plant ;  consequently,  the  material  best  and  safest  to  use 
in  growing  green  cuttings  in  general  is  one  f  i^jjfronx^ill, 
salts,  metallic  oxides,  humus  or  coloring  matter  of  any 
kind.  The  most  abundant  and  available  material  of  this 
nature  is  pure  silex  (sand).  That  which  maybe  obtained 
from  the  banks  of  fresh  water  streams,  ponds  and  lakes 
is  generally  the  purest  and  best,  but  that  found  in  the 
ordinary  .sand-pit  niay  be  used  with  safety,  if  well  washed 
to  remove  the^)xi^esor"Tron  and  other  metals  "wnTch.  are 
usually  present,  giving  to  the  sand  its  red,  yellow,  or 
other  shades  of  -Qolor.,  When  ordinary  building  or  pit- 
sand  is  to  be  used  lor  propagating  plants,  it  should  be 
dug  out^an^expo^ed  to  the  weather  for^jej^we^ks  or 
months  previous,  in  order  to  hasten  tKeTfurther  oxidizing 
of  the  metals  which  it  may  contain,  and  facilitate  their 
removal  by  washing.  Sea-sand  is,  as  a  rule,  too  line  for 
such  purposes,  besides  it  contains  various  saljjs,  and  fre- 
quently magnetic  iron  in  large  quantities.  Many  a  gar- 
dener has  sustained  serious  losses  from  attempting  to 
propagate  certain  kinds  of  plants,  through  negligence  in 
this  matter  of  obtaining  pure  ,san(l  in  which  to  place  his 
cuUings. 

iFpure^  sand  is  placed  in  pots,  boxes  or  frames,  with 


162 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


sufficient  openings  in  the  bottoms  to  allow  of  rapid 
drainage,  there  is  little  danger  of  applying  too  much 
water  on  the  surface,  as  the  sand  witTTJiMy  retain  a  cer- 
tain amount ;  all  in  excess  passift^ragidly  away.  The 
roots  being  produced  from,  the-  organized  matter  already 
in  the  cutting,  no  further  nutriment  than  that  contained 
in  the  water  applied,  is  required  until  the  cutting  is  well 
supplied  with  roots,  when  it  should  be  removed  from  the 
sand,  and  potted  in  good  soil,  with  which  more  or  less 
sand  is  intermingled,  varying  the  amount  according 


Fig.  57.— CUTTING  OF  GREEN  WOOD. 

the  nature  of  the  plant  being  propagated.  Plants  of  a 
soft,  succulent  nature,  like  the  Coleuses,  Begonias  and 
Geraniums,  should  at  first  be^o]^din^j;aO^J^gMjml 
porous  soil,  while  a  more  fern  one  may  be  given  to  ligne- 
ous plants  of  Hnii  tfcxfnre  ;  although  it  is  better  to  err,  if 
at  all,  in  placing  the  newly  rooted  cuttings  in  rather  too 
light  a  soil  than  one  that  is  too  heavy. 

PREPARING,, THE  .CUTTINGS.  — In  making 
the  young  or  ^ucculejai^shoot^  of  plants,  a  portion  of  the 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF   IM3IATUBE   GROWTHS.  163 

leaves,  should  be  allowed  to  ^emain^an^ t h e  cutting,  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  in  the  assimilation  of  the  sap  and 
preparation,  of  the  material  required  to  produce  roots. 
In  selecting  cuttings  of  ligneous  plants,  it  is  advisable, 
when  convenient,  to  take  the  small,  shco^si^e^shoots 
that  may  be  cut  off  close  to  the  more  mature  wood,  leav- 
ing, the  hip  or  ring  of  half  ripened  wood  attached  at  the 
base  ;  for,  as  I  have  stated  on  a  previous  page,  in  regard 
to  ripe  wood  cuttings,  there  is  usually  an  aggregation  of 
buds,  and  more  available  prganized  matter,  at  this  point 
than  elsewhere.  The  lower  leaves  on  the  cutting  should 
be  removqd.  This  should  begone  with  a  sharp  knife,  and 
the  wound  made  left  with  a  smooth  surface  ;  for  severing 
with  a  dull  knife,  or  crushing  with  shears,  and  even  pull- 
ing off  the  leaves  by  hand  (as  often  practised  by  careless 
gardeners,  who  are  in  such  haste  that  they  seldom  do 
their  work  well),  will  not  answer  when  making  cuttings  of 
the  soft  shoots  of  delicate  plants.  The  old  saying  that 
anything  that  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well,  is 
certainly  applicable  here,  for  no  one  canjbg,too  carejuiiri, 
making  and  plantin^_cuitings_of  th§*p:een  shoots  of 
woody  plants  and  succulent  stems  of  herbaceous  plants. 
It  is  also  well  to  make  up  such  cuttings  in  the  house,  or 
where  they  will  n^ot^be  exposed  to itK<T  direct  rays  .at  the 
gun  while  they  are  being  made. 

It  is  not  always  practicable  to  make  cuttings  of  this 
form,  for  some  woody  plants  will  produce  few  or  no  lat- 
eral shoots,  unless  the  leading  ones  are  pinched  back  for 
the  purpose  of  forcing  out  side  branches,  and  where  the 
latter  are  not  available  the  terminal,  or  leading  shoots, 
may  be  used  for  cuttings,  and  with  some  kinds  of  plants 
the  entire  new  growth  of  the  season  may  be  divided  up 
for  this  purpose.  In  some  cases  the  half  ripened,  or 
nearly  mature  shoots  of  herbaceous  plants,  are  better  for 
cuttings  than  a  younger" growth.  With  the  half  woody 
and  herbaceous  plants,  the  tips  of  both  upright  and  lat- 


164  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

eral  shoots  are  used  for  cuttings,  and  in  making  them  the 
lower  leaves  are  cut  off,  as  shown  in  figure  57.  The  cut^ 
tings  should  be  cut  square  across,  just  below  a  bud,  or 
the  axil  of  a  leaf,  and  of  twigs  firm  enough  to  be  severed 
without  breaking  or  crushing  under  the  blade  of  a  sharp 
implement.  In  making  very  small  and  slender  cut- 
tings, like  those  of  the  Heath  (Ericas),  a  razor  in  good 


58.—  STAPELIA   GLAUCA. 


order  is  none  too  sharp  an  implement  for  this  work,  and 
the  heel  of  the  cutting  may  be  placed  on  the  thumb  nail^ 
or  a  piece  of  horn  when   being  smoothed  off   before 
planting. 

No  general  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  exact  time  for 
separating  the  cutting  from  the  parent  plant  ;  withvsomp 
it  is  better  to  take  them  off  while  the  growth  is  very 
young  and  tender,  while  with  .others  it  should  be  some- 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF  IMMATURE   GROWTHS. 


165 


what  mature  and  jirja.  CUittinga^of  the  succulent  plants, 
like  theTStapelias  (figure  58),  and  the  Gac^ujes  and  others 
of  a  similar  structure,  are  benefited  by  a  few  hours  or 
eyen  days  of  drying  before  planting,  or  they  may  be^set 
in  dry  sajidar_.soil  a  few  days  jjefpre  any  wjter  is  applied. 
But  at  no  time  should  cuttings  of  these  plants  be  watered 
very  freely,  but  the  sand  in  which  they  are  set  should  be 
kept  only  slightly  moist.  Some  propagators  make  a 
practice  of  wilting  the  cuttings  of  Geraniums,  Acacias, 
Banksias,  and  many  other  kinds  of  plants,  before  placing 
them  in  the  cutting  boxes  or  frames,  but  others  appear 
to  produce  just  as  good  results  without  it,  planting  the 
cuttings  as  soon  as  made. 

CUTTJSTGS  OF  THE  LEAVES. — The  leaves  of  many  kinds 
of  plants  may  be  employed  in 
making  cuttings  whenever  it  is 
necessary  for  their  rapid  mul- 
tiplication. In  propagating 
woody  plants  by  cuttings  of  the 
leaves,  the  leaf  is  usually  taken 
off  ^n^ir^jvith  _t h e  jgejjole  or 
leaf-stalk  attached,  as  shown  in 
figure  59,  the  leaf-stalk  in  this 
case  representing  the  stem  of 
the  ordinary  cutting.  Such  cut- 
tings should  be  taken  ighilej&g. 
leaf  is  fresh  and  in  a  condition 
for  supplying  the  proper  ma- 
terials required  for  the  produc- 
tion of  roots  and  buds,  and 
placed  in  a  w,arm,.  moist  and  con- 
fined atmosphere,  or  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  the  ordinary  grejpjnitting.  Not  only  can 
the  leaves  of  the  common  Lilacs,  Roses,  and  various  other 
kinds  of  har^iyshruJ3sand>iree^^ 
of  the  leay.es,  but  there  are  hundreds  of  tHe  common  and 


Fig.  59.— LEAF  OF  LILAO. 


166 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


rare  species  and  varieties  of  tender  greenhouse  and  bed- 
ding plants  that  may  be,  and  some  often  are,  multiplied 
in  this  manner.  Certain  kinds  produce  roots  so  freely 
from  their  leaves  ihat^it  is  not  necessary  to  use  or  pre- 
serve the  leaf-stalk,  but  the  leaf  may  be  laid  down  with 
its  underside  in  contact  with  the.  sand,  and  little  wooden 
pegs  thrust  through  it  as  shown  in  the  Begonia  leaf, 


Fig.  60.— LEAF  OF  BEGONIA,  PRODUCING  YOUNG  PLANTS. 

figure  60,  or  the.  leaf  maybe^cut  up  into  small  pieces  and 
then  set  upright  in  sand,  when  eacjh  part  of  the  leaf  will 
soon  produce  roots,  buds,  and  then  new  leaves,  as  shown 
in  figure  61. 

The  thick,  fleshy  leaves  of  the  common  Bryophyllum 
calycinum,  as  they  fall  to  the  ground,  will  often  throw 
out  roots  and  buds  from  their  edges,  and,sif  left,  undis- 
turbed,   these  buds    saon   become  vigorous  individual 
gforf*&»*&uU9*?  to/toyi 
6 


BY   CUTTINGS   OP   IMMATURE    GROWTHS.  167 

plants.  Not  only  are  the  Bryophyllums,  Begonias,  Ges- 
nerias,  and  many  other  kinds  of  closely  allied  plants, 
propagated  by  cuttings  of  their  leaves,  but  among  the 
succulent  Cactuses,  Stapelias,  Echeverias  and  Cacalias, 
either  their  ieaves^or  lej^Uke  ^tejus,  are  geiLej^ally_,an> 
ployed  in  multiplying  the  various  species  and  varieties  in 
cultivation. 

SETTU^__THJL_QUTTINGS. — The  depth  and  distance 
apart  at  which  cuttings  should  be  .get,  .must  necessarily 
vary  according  to  their  length  and  thickness,  but,  as  a 
rule,  one-half  their  entire  length  should  be  covered  when 
set  iiilTposition  for  growth. 

The  more  us.ua!  lengths  for  green  cuttings  are  from 
two  to  four  inches  ;  consequently,  the 
sand  in  the  boxes  need  not  be  of 
greater" depth  than  to  give , room  for 
the  production  of  roots,  and  insure 
the  retention  of  sufficient  amount  of 
moisture  around  the  base  of  the  cui- 
ting.  If  the  sand  in  the  boxes  is 
made  rather  moist,  a  sharp  or  pointed 
stick,  or  dibber,  may  be  employed  for 
making  the  small  holes  in  it  for  the 
reception  of  the  cuttings,  but  where 
the  cuttings  are  small,  and  a  large 
number  are  to  be  set,  a  pane  of  glass 
is  a  better  implement,  for  by  pressing 
one  edge  down  into  the  sand,  a 
straight,  narrow  trench  is  quickly  F|  61 

made  across  the  box,  and  into  this  the  PIECE  OF  BEGONIA  LEAF, 

.  ,  .  ,  .  ,,  T        USED  AS  A  CUTTING. 

cuttings  may  be  set  very  rapidly,  and 
at  any  distance  apart  desired.  When  a  row  has  been  set, 
the  glass  may  be  inserted  near  it,  and  with  a  slight  side 
movement  the  sand  pressed  firmly  against  the  cuttings, 
or  the  sand,  or  other  material,  may  be  "pressed  down 
around  each  cutting,  separately,  with  the  fingers  or  the 


168  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

large  end  of  the  dibber.  Af  ter  (llli^g,tlie  bgx,  the  cuttings 
may  be  spryjlded jpth  water,  which  Avill  aid  furtherjji 
compacting  the  sand  about  the  base  of  the  cuttings. 

The  professional  florist,  with  the  conveniences  for 
propagating  plants  in  quantities,  will  seldom  have  occa- 
sion to  employ  anything  of  less  size  than  boxes  holding 
several  dozen  or  a  hundred  cuttings,  but  the  amateur  may 
often  have  occasion  to  raise  a  less  number  of  plants  of 
certain  species  or  varieties,  ^nd,in  doing  so  have  recourse 
to  ordinary  flower-pots  for  this  purpose,  placing  them  in 
a  window,  or  by  the  side  of  some  building  or  board  fence, 
where  the  requisite  amount  of  heat  may  be  obtained  dur- 
ing the  summer  months. 

When  gree.n  cuttings  are  set  in  pots  filled  with  sand, 
and  placed  in  the  window  of  an  ordinary  room  in  sum- 
mer, or  even  plunged  in  a 
half -shady  place  in  the  open 
ground,  they  are  very  likely 
to  be  occasionally  neglected, 
hence  suffer  for  want  of  mois- 
ture. To  prevent  this,  and 
insure  a  constant  and  regular 
supply,  the  device  shown 
in  figure  G2  is  frequently  em- 
,.  „„  ployed.  In  this  two  pots 

Fig.  62.— DOUBLE  POT  FOR  J 

CUTTINGS.  are   used,   one   inside   of    the 

other,  with  sufficient  differ- 
ence in  their  sizes  to  leave  a  space  between,  which  is 
filled  with  sand,  c  c,  and  into  this  me  cuttings  are  in- 
serted. The  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  inner  or  smaller 
pot  is  .stopped  with  a  cork,  and  the  pot  is  then  employed 
as  a  reservoir  for  holding  water,  d.  If  the  smaller  pot 
is  of  the  ordinary  unglazed  kind,  enough  wat^r  will  pcr- 
Qolate/  through  the  sides  and  bottom  to  keep  v  the  sand 
fairly  moi^t,  but  never  saturated.  The  small,  inner  pot 
should  be  kept  filled  with  water,  or  at  least  not  be  allowed 


BY   CUTTINGS   OF   IMMATURE   GROWTHS. 


169 


to  become  entirely  empty.  By  setting  the  cuttjngs  close 
tpjhe  rini  of  thejn&j^e  pot,  a  belTglas^I^a^be  used  ^or 
covering  the  cuttings,  thereby  insuring  a  close,  moist  at- 
mospnere,  and  preventing^tooji'apid^evaporation  of  the 
juices  Q£  the  cuttings  through  their  leaves*  By  employ- 
ing larger  pots  and  filling  them  about  half  full  of  sand, 
the  cuttings  may  be  covered  with  a  large  pane  of  window 
glass,  laid  lint  on  the  top  of  the  pot.  Boxes  six  to  eight 
inches  in  depth  may  be  employed  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  often  with  excellent  results,  for  cuttings  of  Gerani- 
ums, Coleuses,  Fuschias,  and  other  kinds  of  plants  that 
are  readily  propagated  from  green  cuttings.  With  giants 
that  are  not  GO  easily  propagated, 
a  similar  arrang&nient  oT^ke^po-ts 
may  be  employed,  and  the  space 
betw^een  the  twc^filledj^itli  moss, 
tan,  CT*e'VUU"l38i.nd,  and  the  center 
one  al^~ffled.  wj^hsand,  pHJctng 

arQundij^jasP^  ar- 

rangemenVemploying    two    bell 
glasses,  as  shown  in  figure  63 
the  larger  bell  glp,ss  ;  #,jt 
or  smaller  one  ;  c,  cutjiing  ;  ^ sa 
iwtlieinner  pot ;  ^e^lfed^sp^ 

bew5Cn*theJjS^s  ;  ^JSe^ou-ter,  or  largeiyx>j;.  With  this 
deviceVan^^r^perattexBtion  for  securin^a  tenvperature  of 
seventy  to  eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  cuttings  of  many 
kinds  of  plants  usually  considered  quite  difficult  to  propa- 
gate, may  be  forced  to  produce  roots  in  a  few  days  or 
weeks.  , 

Many  other  devices  are  employed  in  propagating  plants 
from  green  cuttings,  but  the  principles  governing  the 
operation  are  the  same  in  all,  and  while  the  propagator's 
ingenuity  or  fancy  may  lead  him  to  vary  the  mode  of 
doing  a  thing,  he  seeks  only  the  rapid  production  of  roots. 


, 


.  63.— DOUBLE  BELL 
GLASS  FOR  CUTTINGS. 


170  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
PROPAGATING  BY  PAYEES. 

The  same  principles  given  .for-  propagating  plants  by 
cuttings  are  applicable  tojajer^.j^itlijbbis  difference  : 
layers  of  tbe  green  and  growing  parts  do  riot  need  to  be 
surrounded  witli  a  confined  atmosphere,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent a  too  rapid  evaporation  of  their  juices  through  the 
leaves.  A  layer  is  only  a  cutting  that  is  allowed  to  re- 
main attached  to  the  parent,  plant  until  it  has  produced 
roots  through  which  it  may  collect  sustenance  for  self- 
support. 

Various  methods  are  employed  to  produce  this  result, 
such  as  ringing,  girdling,  twistingptonguing,  or  partly 
dividing  that  portion  of  the  stem  or  branch  on  which  it 
is  desired  that  roots  shall  be  formed.  All  these  distor- 
tions of  the  stem  or  branches  of  the  plant  layered  are  for 
one  object,  that  is,  to  check  the  downward  flow  of  sap. 
Roots  J;hen  become  necessary  for  supplying  sustenance  to 
the"  cutting,  or  layer,  and  are  consequently  formed. 
The  most  common  method  of  preparing  layers  is  that  of 
making  a  tongue  on  the  under  side  of  the  branch.  The 
operation  is  performed  thus  :  ]VIake  an  incision  in  the 
branch  or  part  of  the  plant  to  be  layered,  just  below  a 
bud,  cutting  through  the  bark  and  into  the  branch  to 
the  depth  of  one-quarter  to  one-half  its  diameter;  then 
pass  the  knife  upward  for  an  inch  or  more,  according  to 
the  size  and  nature  of  the  plant  being  layered,  splitting 
the  branch  lengthways,  forming  the  tongue  as  shown  in 
figure  64  at  a.  The  branch  is  then^bgnt  down  and 
fastened  in  its  place  Jby  means  of  a  hooked  \j3eg,  c, 
and  the  end  tied  up  to  a  stake,  J),  as  shown  iujfigure 
.64.  That  part  on  which  the  incision  is  made  is 
covered  with, soil  or  other  material  that  will  exclude  ifc 


PROPAGATING   BY   LAYERS. 


171 


from  light  and  air,  while  at  the  same  time  keeping  it 
moist,  thus  aiding  the  dev_dagn^ent^ofjrQot§.  In  making 
layers  of  certain  kinds  of  smaUKerbaceous  plants  and 
slender  vines,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  use  pegs  or 
stakes  to  hold  the  layer  in  place  ;  but  with  larger  plants, 
they  are  usually  needed  for  keeping  the  layered  branch 
steady  and  in  one  position,  while  the  new  roots  are  being 
emitted. 

Twisting,  coiling,  or  notching  the  branch,  so  as  to 
partly  separate  the  fibres,  will  often  answer  the  purpose 


Fig.  61— LAYERED  BRANCH  OF  A  TREE. 

equally  as  well  as  ton gn ing.  Girdling  the  branch  to  be 
layered,  by  removing  a  ring  of  bark  a  half  inch  or  more 
in  width,  is  another  mode  of  exposing  the  alburnum  to 
the  soil  and  checking  the  flow  of  sap  in  woody  plants. 
Bending  the  branch  aJL.a  very  acute  angle  will  often 
answer  the  same  purpose,  but  this  can  only  be  done  with 
safety  on  plants  with  tough  wood  and  bark.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  ligneous  as  well  as  herbaceous  plants  that 
will  produce  roots  freely,  and  in  a  few  days'  time,  from 
branches  merely  laid  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
covered  with  almost  any  kind  of  material  that  will  keep 
them  moist ;  but  there  are  others  that  produce  roots  very 


172  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

tardily,  or  not  at  all,  even  under  the  most  careful  and 
skilful  manipulation. 

In  preparing  layers  of  those  plants  wlych  produce  roots 
••very  slowly,  it  is  best  to  Distort  that  part  which  is  buried 
as  much  as  possible  with  safety  ;  but  with  many  kinds  no 
disturbance  of  the  natural  condition  is  necessary.  With 
nearly  all  kinds  of  climbing  and  trailing  plants,  such  as 
Wistarias,  Tecomas,  Honeysuckles  (Lonicera),  , Grape, 
Passifloras,  etc.,  it  is  only  necessary  to  lay  the  stems  in  a 
shallow  trench,  early  in  spring,  and  when  the  buds  push 
into  growth,  draw  the  soil^back  into  place ;  thus  treated, 


Fig.  65.— LATER  OF  VINE. 

each  shoot  will  produce  a  plant.  Jloots  will  usually  be 
emitted  in-^bpniauce  the  entire  length  of  the  old  stem, 
as  shown  in  figure  65.« 

When  roots  are^rtot  produced  as  freely  as  desired,  then 
the  layered  cane  may  be  bent,,  as  shown  in  figure  G6, 
a  method  quite  generally  practised  with  the  Wistarias, 
Passifloras,  and  similar  vines,  especially  when  a  large 
number  of  plants  are  sought,  in  preference  to  a  few 
of  more  vigorous  growth.  If  only  a  few  strong  plants 
are  wanted,  then  the  cane  may  be  layered  with  one  single 
bend,  as  practised  with  shrubs  and  trees.  (See  figure  64.) 
In  preparing  .shrubs  and  trees  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing layers  therefrom,  it  is  often  necessary  to. 


PROPAGATING   BY  LAYERS. 


173 


them  bacl^  severely,  the  year  previous,  so  that  a  large 
number  of  shoots  shall  start  from  near  the  ground. 
Plants  thus  prepared  are  technically  termed  .stools ; 
and  if  all  the  new  shoots  are  layered  in  any  one  sea- 


Fig.  66.—  BENT  LATER  OF  VINE. 


son,  then  none  should  be  layered  the  next,  but  the 
new  growths  be  allowed  to  grow  unchecked,  so  that  the 
parent  stock  may  regain  that  strength  of  which  it  has 
been  deprived  by  excessive  layering.  With  some  kinds 


Fig.  67.— STOOL  BANKED  UP. 

Q|  plants  it  is  not  necessary  to  bend  down  or  layer  the 
shoots,  but  merely  to  -bank  them  pp  with  soil,  as  shown 
in  figure  67,  and  when  the  shoots,  have  thrown  out 
from  their  base,  they  are  slipped  off  from  the 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

main  stalk  and  planted  out  separately.  The  Quince, 
Hibiscus,  Cercis,  Paradise  Apple,  and  many  other  kinds 
of  trees  and  shrubs  that  produce  roots  readily,  are  exten- 
sively propagated  in  this  manner.  It  is  certainly  more 
convenient  for  the  purpose  of  layering,  if  the  branch  is 
near  the  ground ;  yet  it  is  not  positively  necessary,  be- 
cause soil,  or  other  material  which  will  answer  the  same 
purpose,  may  be  elevated  to  the  branch  to  be  layered. 
A  platform  may  be  made,  upon 
which  to  place  the  soil  (figure_6£), 
or  boxes  and  pots^  6 lied  with  it 
may  be  suspended  among  the 
branches  of  a^Tree  and  the  shoots 
layered  therein.  §u£  in  making 
layers  of  this  kind,  it  will  require 
more  care  to  keep  the  soil  moist 
around  the  layer  than  when  they 
are  placed  in  the  earth  in  the  usual 
manner.  It  will  seldom  be  neces- 
sary to  make  layers  of  branches 
that  cannot  be  bent  down  to  the 

Ftg.  68.-LAYER  IN  POT.         grQun(L    gtf^  ingtancss  mfly  occur? 

where  it  will  be  desirable  to  secure  some  freak  in  this  way. 
sTiME^FOE^MAKiNG  LAYERS.— The  proper  time,  or 
season,  for  making  layers  is  as  variable  as  thaTlxJr  mak- 
ing cuttings.  But,  ajsjy^JLe^  layers  should  be  made  wjjile 
the  parent  pl^ntis  growing  most  rapidly,  because  roots 
will  be  pro^uc^aT  sucn  timesmore^readlly  than  at  any 
other,  althougTT^rth~~Wfe1faT^Tnas  iFwfll  make  very  little 
difference,  as  they  produce  roots  freely  under  almost  all 
conditions  and  from  all  parts  of  the  plant.  With  the 
larger  proportion  of  both  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees 
and  shrubs,  ^yering  should  vnot  J)egin  until  tl^Jeayes 
have  full^expan3ed,  and  the  new  growth  of  the  season 
is  fairly  under  way.  If  layered  earlier,  many  of  the  de- 
ciduous trees  and  shrubs  will  "bleed,"  as  it  is  termed, 


PROPAGATING  BY   LAYERS.  175 

from  the  wounds  made  on  the  layered  parts,  and  the  sap 
flowing  from  these  wounds  will  often  corrode  and  other- 
wise injure  the  exposed  cells  and  entirely  prevent  the 
production  of  roots  therefrom.  Wounds  made  in  the 
branches  of  coniferous  trees  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months  are  usually  soon  covered  by  the  exuding 
resin,  the  severed  and  otherwise  exposed  cells  thereby 
becoming  fully  protected,  not  only  against  the  influence 
of  moisture  from  without,  but  it  effectually  prevents 
the  formation  of  a  callus  and  production  of  roots.  For 
this  reason,  such  Qonifers  as  Pines,  Spruce,  and  Firs 
should  always  be  layered  at  a  time  when  the  sap  is  thin- 
nest and  flowing  mosfrapidly,  as  during  the  first  growth 
of  spring  and  early  summer.  With  some  kinds  of  hardy 
deciduous  trees  and  shrubs  the  autumn  islihe  better  sea- 
son in  which  to  make  layers,  for  the  reasons  given  for 
making  cuttings  at  that  season,  but  such  variations  will 
be  noted  further  on.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages 
in  propagating  plants  byjaygrs  are  : 

First,  It  is  a  very  simple  process  of  multiplying  plants 
by  which  an  inexperienced  person  may  propagate  many 
species  and  varieties  that  require  greater  skill  by  different 
processes  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  especially  valuable  to 
amateurs  who  possess  neither  skill  nor  facilities  for  propa- 
gating plants  by  the  more  advanced  and  superior  modes. 

£>ccoi}fl,  It_is^a  certain  mode,  with  by  far  the  larger 
number  of  ligneous  species,  as  the  parent  plant  sustains 
the  layer  until  it  has  produced  roots  through  which  it 
may,  when  transplanted,  derive  nutriment  for  self-sup- 
port ;  but  the  roots  produced  on  layers  are  seldom  of  as 
firm  a  texture,  neither  do  they  mature  as  early  as  these 
produced  on  cuttings  :  hence  their  inferiority. 

Third,  .With  many  kinds  of  plants  much  larger  speci- 
mens may  be  obtained  in  less  time  than  is  possible  by 
cufctings^and,  as  size  is  frequently  more  highly  appre- 
ciated than  quality,  large  layers  are  usually  in  demand. 


176  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

CHAPTER    XIV. 
PROPAGATION  BY  SUCKERS  AND  DIVISIONS. 

Suckers  #re  shoots  which  are  produced  from  latent  or 
adventitious  buds  on  the  subterranean  stems  or  jroots. 
Shoots  that  spring  up  from  the  base  of  the  main  stem  of 
a  plant  are  often  referred  to  under  the  name  of  .stem- 
suckers,  but  "sprout"  is  by  far  the  more  appropriate 
name,  as  they  are  of  a  very  different  origin,  and  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  true  suckers  of  plants.  There 
are  hundreds  of  different  kinds  and  species  of  plants 
which,  under  certain~~conditions,  produce  sprouts  quite 
freelyxfrom  their  qrow,ns  or  the  base  of  their  stems,  but 
seldom  or  never  a  true  sucker  from  the  roots. 

The  common  Dahlia  and  Pseonia  are  familiar  tuberous 
rooted  plants  that  produce  scouts  or  stems  from,  their 
crowds,  butwnp  buds  or  puckers  from  any  part  of  the 
tuber  or  root  below  it.  Among  trees,  the  Catalpas,  Ma- 
ples, Magnolias  and  Chestnuts  are  well  known  kinds  that 
produce  sprouts  freely,  but  seldom  or  never  ^sucker. 

To  increase  by  suckers  appears  to  be  one  oF"rjature's 
methods  of  multiplying  certain  kinds  of  plants,  and  when 
these  are  brought  under  cultivation  it  becomes  a  ready 
and  simple  means  of  propagation.  It  is  very  probable, 
however,  that  long  continued  propagation  by  suckers  will 
intensify  the  habit  until  the  plant  multiplies  so  rapidly 
in  this  way,  that  it  will  lose  much  of  its  oriirinal  value, 
even  if  it  does  not  become  an  intolerable  nuisance  to  the 
eumvator.  The  propaga^ion_o^lants  by  natural  suckers 
is  certainly  a  GQnveniejit  process^Bufr  upon  the  whole  it 
tends  morevto  the  degeneration  of  the  species  or  variety 
thus  multiplied  than  to  improving  it ;  consequently,  it 
should  jieyer  be  resorted  to  except  with  some  of  the  simple 
specie^,  like  the  Raspberryand^ackberry,  or  herbaceous 


PROPAGATION   BY   SUCKERS   AND   DIVISIONS,        177 

plants,  which  are  frequently  transplanted  or  renewed  from 


Suckers  from  old  Pear,  Cherry,  Plum,  and  other  kinds 
of  fruit  trees  may,  under  some  circumstancss,  be  worth 
preserving,  especially  when  other  means  of  propagation 
are  not  at  hand  ;  but  trees  raised  from  these  suckers  are 
seldoni  as  vigorous,  productive  and  healthy  as  those  prop- 
agated by  other  and  more  scientific  methods.  The  same 
is  true  of  many  kinds  of  forest  trees  which  sucker  more 
or  less  freely ;  and  while  there  may  be  no  difficulty  in 
transplanting  the  sucl^rsyand  making  them  grow,  they 
ire,  as  a  rule,  ipferaaTto  seedlings. 

are  manj^mds^oi  herbaceous  plants,  such  as 
Japan  Anemones,  the  Pachysandras,  Lilies-of-the-Valley, 
and  same  of  the  herbaceous  Spiraeas,  that  are  usually 
propagated  by- suckers,  but  they  are  so  frequently  trans- 
planted and  divided  that  no  apparent  deterioration  has 
as  yet  been  observed  from  this  long  continued  mode  of 
propagation. 

PROPAGATION  BY  DIVISION. — In  propagating  plants 
by  divisions,  we  take~attvantage  of  all  the  various  forms 
of  growth  wherein  buds  or  sprouts  appear  on  the  crowns, 
side  shoots,  or  the  base,  of  the  stems.  With  many  kinds 
of  herbaceous  plants,  division  of  the  clumps  of  the  buds, 
stems  and  roots  is  the  most  common  mode  of  propagation. 
There  are  also  various  kinds  of  ligneous  plants  which 
may  be  rapidly  multiplied  by  divisions,  employing  for 
this  purpose  the  sprouts  which  spring  up  from  the  base 
of  their  stems.  The  number  of  these  sprouts  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  severely  heading-back  the  main  stems 
early  in  spring,  thereby  forcing  the  stump  to  produce  a 
largo  number,  and  permitting  the  entire  forces  of  the 
r^oots,  to  be  expended  in  producing  buds  and  sprouts. 
After  tliese  sprouts  have  reached  a  moderate  size  they 
may  be  ban^ejjjp  and  their  bases  covered  withjsoiL  to 
induce  the  formation  of  roots  atffiisoTnT,  as  described 


178  PPOPAGATIO^   OF  PLANTS. 

in  the  preceding  chapter  ;  but  this  banking  must  be 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  operated 
upon  ;  for,  in  some  instances,  to  place  earth  around 
young,  succulent  sprouts  would  destroy  them,  while  on 
others,  roots  would  be  produced  more  freely  than  if  the 
operation  was  delayed  until  they  were  nearly  or  quite 
mature.  When  such  sprouts  have  become  well  furnished 
with  r/)ots,  whether  it  be  at  the  end  of  the  first,  second 
or  third  season,  they  may  be  slipped  off  and  planted  out 
separately.  In  propagating  plants  by  divisions,  the  best 
time  for  separating  sprouts  from  the  parent  stock,  or 
dividing  up  clumps  of  herbaceous  plants,  is  when  they 
are  in  a  dormant  state  ;  but  this  does  not  occur  in  all  the 
plants  indigenous  to  any  country,  at  one  time,  or  during 
any  one  season.  It  is  perhaps  true  that  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  plants  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  tem- 
perate climates  are  in  a  semi-dormant  condition  during 
the  colder  months ;  still  it  is  well  known  that  the  roots 
of  certain  kinds  grow  very  rapidly,  while  the  aerial  parts 
are  to  all  outward  appearances  in  a  state  of  complete  rest. 

With  by  far  the  larger  number  of  the  species  of  plants 
cultivated ,m  cold  climates,  ^spring  is  the  best  season^for, 
dividing  and  transplanting,  because  the  warm  rains  which 
usually  fall  at  this  season  favor  the  production  of  new 
roots  as  well  as  buds  and  growth  of  stern.  But  in  mild 
Qlimatigs,  where  the  ground  does  not  freeze,  or  at  least 
not  to  any  considerable  depth  in  winter,  the  autumn 
months  would  be  preferable,  in  which  to  do  such  work, 
to  those  of  spring. 

There  are,  however,  many  kinds  of  bulbous,  tuberous, 
and  fibrous  rooted  herbaceous,  plants  indigenous  to  cool 
and  coM  climates  that  make  all  their  stem  and  leaf-growths 
early  in  spring  and  then  rest  during-  the  warmest  weather 
in  summer.  'No  amount  of  rain  or  degree  of  heat  will 
force  them  to  make  a  second  growth.  With  such  plants, 
among  the  most  familiar  of  which  are  the  spring  flower- 


PROPAGATION   BY   SUCKERS   AST)   DIVISIONS.        179 

ing  bulbs — the  Narcissus,  Hyacinth,  Tulip,  etc.,  or  the 
fibrous  and  tuberous  species  of  early  Anemones,  Spiraeas, 
Dicentras  and  Perennial  Poppy — dividing  the  bulbs  and 
clumps  and  transplanting  should  immediately  follow  the 
ripening  of  the  foliage,  for  this  time  is  the  beginning  oE 
the  dormant  season  with  these  plants. 

Boot-growth  and  development  of  flower-buds  will  take 
place  later  in  the  season,  and  while  no  stems  may  appear 
above  the  surface,  they  are  gathering  materials  for  the 
ensuing  season's  growth.  In  a  few  instances,  as  in  the 
common  Garden  Lily  (Lilium  candidum)  and  Oriental 
Poppy  (Papyver  orientale)  a  part  of  the  main  leaves  of 
the  plants  push  to  the  surface  early  in  autumn.  Owing 
to  the  wide  difference  in  the  habits  and  structure  of 
plants,  no  one  season,  or  time  of  year,  can  be  considered 
as  best  for  dividing  and  transplanting  all  kinds. 

In  the  common  herbaceous  species  of  the  PaBonia  and 
Dahlia  we  have  types  of  a  class  of  plants  that  produce 
tubers  with  buds  clustered  at  the  apex  or  crown,  and  not 
distributed  over  the  entire  surface,  as  seen  in  the  Potato 
and  American  (commonly  called  Jerusalem)  .Artichoke. 
In  prorogating  the  varieties  of  either  class,  we  have  only 
to  separate  the  buds,  leaving  a  tuber  or  a  small  portion  of 
one  attached  to  the  bud,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  it 
with  sustenance  until  it  emits  new. roots j and  tubers. 
Many  of  the  fibrous-rooted  plants  which  grow  in  tufts  or 
stools,  as  seen  in  some  species  of  Grass,  Garden  Pinks, 
and  other  common  plants,  are  usually  propagated  by 
divisions.  All  plants  which-  naturally  produce  buds, 
bujbs,  or  tubers  on  their^roots  o^^ibterrajieo^s^s^jns^are, 
usualty~more  readily  propagated  by  mot  divisions  than 
are  those  which  do  not  show  such  formations,  but,  as  I 
have  already  shown,  with  many  kinds  the  existence  of 
buds  is  of  no  importance  whatever,  because  there  is  an 
inherent  power  in  the  plant  sufficient  to  produce  them 
whenever  they  are  required. 


180  PROPAGATION   OE   PLANTS. 

PROPAGATION  BY  KuNNEHSj  on  STOLONS. — There  are 
manys  species  of  plants,  such  as  the  common  Strawberry, 
some  of  the  Potentillas,  Saxifrages,  and  various  species 
of  Grassesjwhich  throw  out  long,  slender  shoots,  pro- 
ducing'  bii  as,  leaves  and  roots  at  the  nodes  or  joints. 
Plants  of  this  kind  require  very  little  artificial  aid  in  their 
propagation  ;  still  we  can  hasten  development  and  growth 
by  keeping  the  surface  of  the  ground  rich  and  loose, 
applying  water  whenever  necessary.  In  propagating  the 
common  Strawberry  by  runners,  the  young  plants  may  be 
layered  in  small  pgts  filled  with  rich  soil,  and  then 
plunged  in  the  bed  and  in  the  most  convenient  position 
to  receive  the  undeveloped  plant  when  ready  for  pro- 
ducing roots  or  layering.  By  this  mode  the  roots  are 
confined  within  the  pot,  forming  a  close,  compact  ball, 
which  facilitates  transplanting  and  prevents  any  serious 
check  to  the  growth  of  the  young  plant. 


C'HAPTEK    XV. 

PROPAGATION  BY  jgO£J-CUTTINGS. 

The  propagation  of  .plants  by  jcop.t-ciittings  has  its  ad- 
vantages and  its  disadvantages.  With  some  kinds,  such 
as  certain  species  of  the  Raspberry  and  Blackberry,  it 
will  yield  plants  far  superior  to  those  usually  obtained  in 
the  form  of  natural  suckers  ;  but  with  fruit  trees,  such 
as  the  Pear,  Plum,  and  Cherry,  it  should  never  be  em- 
ployed, except  when  no  other  mode  can  be  made  available, 
or  for  the  purpose  of  saving  some  choice  variety  from  be- 
coming wholly  extinct.  Trees  that  naturally  produce 
suckers  are  likely  to  have  this  habit  intensified  by  contin- 
ued propagation  by  either  suckers  or  root-cuttings  ;  but 
there  are  others  upon  whom  it  does  not  appear  to  have 


PROPAGATION   BY   ROOT-CUTTINGS.  181 


this  effect,  and  with  such  the  propagation  by  root-cjjttiujrs 
^is  i  to  be  recommended  as  a  very  cjjeajp^u^eYCellent  mode 
of  increasing  the  number. 

PkntsJhat  produce  suckers  freely  can  usually  be  grown 
fr-am  root-^i^ng^buj^5^fe  not  limifed  to  tliese  alone, 
for  there  are  ma^ivjjnnjl^  that  seldom  or  never  produce  a 
sucker  under  naturaTconditions,  that  under  artificial  con- 
ditions niay  be  readilxpropagaied  by  root-cu>tings.  ,Why 
one  plant  possesses  so  much  vitality  that  every  portion, 
from  the  leaves  to  the  most  minute  point  of  a  root,  can 
readily  be  made  to  produqe  a  separate  plant,  ivhile  with 
another  every  attempt  at  such  division  is  unsuccessful, 
cannot  be  scientifically  explained.  The  fact  is  apparent  — 
the  cause  unknown. 

Root-cuttings  of  hardy  plants  are  usually  made  in 
autumn,  for  the  same  reasons  given  for  making  cuttings 
of  ripe  wood  at  that  season,  and  in  all  such  operations  it 
is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  it  takes  time  for  changes  and 
the  reorganization  of  cellular  matter.  The  size  of  the 
cutting  will  necessarily  depend  somewhat  upon  the  kind 
of  plant  under  propagation,  and  the  manner  of  keeping 
through  the  winter  must  also  be  varied-  considerably, 
owing  to  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  roots.  Some 
kinds  will  require  more  warmth  and  moisture  to  develop 
buds  and  new  roots  than  others  ;  but  the  propagator  who 
closely  patches  the  progress  of  his  work  can  readily  vary 
the  conditions  to  mQet  the  requirements  of  each  and  every 
kind.  He  can  hasten  the  root-forming  process  by  giving 
m^re  heal^or  retard  it  by  ventilation  and  lowering  the 
temperature. 

As  a  -packing  material  in  which  to  store  root-cuttings 
of  all  hardy  plants,  none  is  equal  to  the  common  Peat- 
moss, or  Sphagnum  from  the  swamps.  It  will  hold 
moisture  well,  is  of  a  cool  nature,  and  will  not*.  ferment 
and  heat,  even  when  packed  closely  and  subjected  to  a 
tngh  temperature.  It  is  also  a  clean  and  sweet  material 


.182  PROPAGATION"   OF   PLANTS. 

in  which  to  pack  away  cions,  roots  or  cuttings  of  any 
kind,  whether  they  are  to  be  preserved  for  a  few  days  or 
for  months. 

The  next  best  material  for  this  purpose  is  clean,  sharp 
sand,  and  it  is  more  generally  used,  probably,  because 
very  abundant,  and  less  labor  is  required  in  packing  away 
as  well  as  removing  the  cutting,  than  when  moss  is  used. 
Ordinary  soil,  if  of  a  rather  light,  sandy  nature,  will 
answer  very  well  as  a  material  in  which  to  store  cuttings, 
but  either  moss  or  sand  is  better. 

In  making  cuttings  of  the  roots  of  such  hardy  plants 
as  the  Easpberry,  Blackberry,  Juneberry,  and  various 
ornamental  shrubs  and  trees  that  are  usually  propagated 
by  this  mode,  the  roots  should  be  taken  up  as  soon  as  the 
plants  have  ceased  growing  in  the  fall,  and.cut  into  pieces 
of  from  one  to  three  inches  in  length,  but  in  some  coarse- 
growing  kinds,  such  as  the  Paulowuia,  they  may  be  a  little 
longer.  Then  prepare  some  boxes,  by  boring  holes  .in  the 
bottom  to  insure  good  drainage,  and  place  a  layer  of  moss 
or  hay  over  the  holes,  and  if  sand  is  used  for  packing, 
spread  on  an  inch  or  two  in  depth  and  over  this  a  layer  of 
the  cuttings,  then  another  thin  layer  of  sand,  and  so  on, 
until  the  box  is  full.  When  moss  is  used  as  a  packing 
material,  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  with  sand.  If  a  dry 
place  can  be  secured  in  the  open  ground,  the  box  contain- 
ing the  cuttings  may  be  buried  there  and  then  covered 
with  sufficient  earth  to  prevent  severe  freezing  during 
the  winter.  A  little  freezing  will  not  injure  the  cuttings 
of  hardy  plants,  though  it  may  retard  the  production  of 
buds  and  new  roots  ;  but  a  cool  cellar  is  the  best  place  in 
which  to  keep  root-cuttings,  because  it  will  be  a  conven- 
ient place  for  examination  from  time  to  time,  and  their 
condition  be  ascertained  as  often  as  necessary.  The 
greatest  danger  to  be  guarded  against  when  cuttings  are 
stored  in  a  cellar  is  high  temperature,  which  may  fon:e 
them  into  growth  before  the  time  arrives  for  planting 


PROPAGATION    BY    ROOT-CUTTINGS.  183 

out.  The  temperature  of  the  cellar  should  remain  only 
a  few  degrees. above  the  freezing  point,  until  the  approach 
of  warm  weather  in  spring ;  then,  if  the  callus  and  buds 
have  not  formed,  increase  the  temperature  as  much  as 
may  be  necessary  to  excite  growth.  It  will  be  found  in 
practice,  that  root-cuttings  of  certain  kinds  of  plants  pro- 
duce a  callus,  buds,  and  even  young  shoots  in  a  much  lower 
temperature  than  others,  hence  the  necessity  of  frequent 
examination.  There  is  also  a  very  marked  difference  in 
the  readiness  with  which  root-cuttings  .of  the  same  .genus 
produce  buds,  and  very  often,  when  two  varieties  of  the 
same  species  are  treated  exactly  alike,  and  placed  side  by 
side,  one  will  produce  buds  and  even  shoots  several  inches 
in  length,  before  the  other  has  emitted  a  callus.  I  have 
often  found  this  to  be  the  case  with  root-cuttings  of  roses, 
and  a  little  forcing  with  bottom  heat  was  needed  to  make 
certain  varieties  produce  buds.  The  intelligent  propa- 
gator will  readily  see  where  a  change  in  treatment  is  re- 
quired, and  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  only  by  close  attention 
in  such  matters  that  success  is  to  be  attained. 

In  warm  or  hot  climates  root-cuttings  may  be  planted 
out  as  soon  as  they  are  made,  provided  there  is  a  certainty 
of  sufficient  rain  falling  to  ensure  a  supply  of  moisture, ; 
but  keeping  them  under  artificial  conditions  will  usually 
yield  the  most  satisfactory  results.  In  all  cases  the  root- 
cuttings  should  be  made  when  the  plant  has  matured  its 
growth  of  the  season,  whether  it  be  of  herbaceous  or 
Avoody  species,  and  the  propagator  should  not  forget  that 
it  takes  time  for  buds  to  form  from  cell  matter,  and  to 
force  the  roots  when  first  divided  is  seldom  or  never  advis- 
able. In  propagating  tender  or  greenhouse  plants,  such 
as  Bouvardias,  Geraniums,  Acacias  and  Coronillas,  etc., 
by  root-cuttings,  the  cuttings  should  be  placed  in  the 
boxes  and  covered  with  sand,  charcoal,  or  moss,  and  then 
set  aside  in  a  moderately  cool  place  to  callus  and  produce 
buds,  before  attempting  to  force  them  into  growth. 


184  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Tender  Eoses,  as  well  as  hardy,  may  be  rapidly  propagated 
by  root-cuttings,  as  is  now  generally  practised  with  the 
Bouvardias,  and  at  all  seasons,  provided  the  cuttings  are 
taken  at  a  time  when  the  plants  are  in  a  semi-dormant 
condition.  This  may  oocur  in  the  autumn,  if  the  plants 
have  been  growing  in  the  open  ground,  or  in  spring  with 
those  that  have  been  forced  in  the  house  during  winter. 
Because  certain  kinds  of  plants  may  be  propagated 
freely  from  ripe  or  green  cuttings,  it  does  not  follow  that 
they  may  also  be  propagated  by  root-cuttings.  For  in- 
stance, cuttings  of  the  branches  of  the  common  Catalpa 
tree  may  be  struck  almost  as  freely  as  the  Willow,  but  I 
have  never  known  of  a  root-cutting  having  been  made  to 
produce  a  bud.  I  have  kept  the  cuttings  between  layers 
of  moss  and  in  a  greenhouse  for  twelve  months,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  they  were  perfectly  sound  and  fresh, 
and  while  they  had  thrown  out  numerous  rootlets,  there 
were  no  indications  of  buds.  J.  C.  London,  in  all  of  his 
works  where  he  has  occasion  to  refer  to  this  tree,  says  that 
it  can  be,  or  is,  propagated  by  root-cuttings,  and  this 
statement  has  been  repeated  by  various  authors  since  his 
time,  and  I  must  confess  to  have  been  once  misled  and 
named  the  Catalpa  among  the  ligneous  plants  which 
could  be  readily  propagated  by  root-cuttings.  The  Paul- 
ownia  tree,  which  is  not  distantly  related  to  the  Catalpa, 
is  so  readily  propagated  by  root-cuttings,  that  nursery- 
men prefer  this  mode  to  any  other.  On  the  contrary, 
there  are  other  woody  plants,  such  as  some  of  the  Moss 
Eoses,  which  almost  defy  the  skill  of  the  experienced 
propagator  to  force  roots  from  the  ripe  wood,  and  yet 
cuttings  of  their  roots  grow  very  readily  when  treated  in 
the  same  way  as  advised  for  those  of  the  Easpberry  and 
Blackberry.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  all 
of  the  known  species  of  the  Eose  can  be  multiplied  as 
readily  from  cuttings  of  their  roots  as  the  common 
Blackberry,  but  there  are  many  that  can  be,  and  no 


PROPAGATION   BY   ROOT-CUTTINGS.  185 

doubt  all  may  be  propagated  by  root-cuttings  by  varying 
the  treatment — some  requiring  more  time  and  a  higher 
temperature  than  others  in  order  to  secure  the  production 
of  buds.  I  now  refer  to  the  t4^e_ropJs<<Lnot  to  what  are 
called  su4^erranea>v$tems  and  branjeJiej^jvluch  are  quite 
djstmc.t  productions  f rom  roBfe,  as  the  former  are  similar 
in  structure  to  the  aerial  stems  and  branches  of  the  plants 
that  produce  them,  having  joints  or  nodes  at  which  there 
is  either  a  single  \^u^  or  a  concentration  of  a  number  of 
buds,  as  may  be  seen  in  such  genera  of  plants  as  the 
Calycanthus,  Neviusia,  and  such  species  as  Kamanas  Rose 
(Rosa  rugosa),  the  Smooth  Sumach  (Rhus  glabra),  and 
various  kinds  of  herbaceous  plants,  like  the  Canada 
Thistle,  Toad-flax,  some  of  the  species  of  Phlox,  Spircea, 
P achy sandra,  and  others,  all  of  which  produce  subter- 
ranean branches,  in  addition  to  their  true  roots.  Fur- 
thermore, tiqie^  roots^ always  originate  in^jjie 

i^perJng^rootlets,  "Jblargjng  with  ag 
subterranean  branch  starts  from  a  bud  on  the  main  stem 
with  nearly,  or  quite,  asgreat  a  diameEer~as  it  will  ever 
acquire,  with  a  tip  not  pointed,  but  rather  blunt,  and 
often  thicker  than  the  part  behind,  and  if  it  meets  no 
obstacle  in  its  lateral  growth,  the  end  will  either  come  to 
the  surface  and  produce  an  upright  stem,  and  separate 
pl&nT7~as  usually  found  about  old  clumps  of  the  plants 
named,  Qr^ej^i^minaj^jn  a  tuj>er,  as  seen  in  the  com- 
mon Potato,  Jerusalem  Artichoke,  Tuberous-rooted  Scir- 
pus  (Chufa),  etc.  If  the  terminal  bud  on  these  subter- 
ranean branches  is  destroyed,  the  next  below  will  pro- 
duce a  shoot,  and  this  may  be  repeated  until  the  entire 
number  are  forced  into  growth,  as  is  well  known  to  every 
farmer  who  has  ever  tried  to  kill  out  Canada  Thistles. 

The  roots  of  the  Easpberry  and  Blackberry,  although 
often  referred  to  as  subterranean  stems  or  branches,  have 
really  nothing  in  common  with  these  productions,  as  they 
do  not  show  any  such  system  of  nodes  and  internodes, 


186  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

with  buds  at  their  joints,  as  seen  on  their  aerial  canes 
and  branches  ;  but  the  roots  of  these  plants  produce  ad- 
ventitious buds  from  any  and  all  parts  of  their  surface 
alike,  consequently  in  dividing  them  for  making  cuttings, 
we  pay  no  attention  to  any  surface  indications  of  roots  or 
buds.  But  in  employing  the  -true  subterranean  branches 
for  cuttings,  we  divide  them  on  the  internode,  preserving 
one,  two  or  more  joints  with  their  dormant  buds  on  eacli 
cutting.  If  one  of  these  buds  pushes  and  forms  a  sprout, 
it  is  sufficient,  but  sometimes  all  will  grow,  producing  a 
greater  number  of  plants,  but  less  vigorous  ones. 

The  after-treatment  of  cuttings  made  of  subterranean 
branches  should  be  very  much  the  same  as  that  given  to 


.—HAND-PRUNING  SHEARS. 


root-cuttings,  although  it  will  usually  require  less  time 
'for  developing  the  dormant  buds  at  their  joints  than  to 
produce  adventitious  buds  on  true  roots.  In  making 
such  cuttings,  the  ordinary  pruning  shears  (figure  69) 
may  be  employed,  instead  of  a  knife,  fcr.#  very  smooth 
surface  to  the  severed  parts  is  not,  so  necessary  as  in  mak- 
ing cuttings  of  the  twigs  and  young  shoots  of  ligneous 
and  herbaceous  plants. 

To  avoid  repetition,  I  will  say  here  that  wherever  in 
the  following  pages  root-cuttings  are  mentioned  as  a  mode 
of  propagation,  it  will  be  understood  that  they  are  to  bo 
made  and  preserved  as  described  in  this  chapter.  Any 
variation  in  treatment  which  may  be  required  will  be 
noted  as  it  may  occur. 


PBOPAGATION   BY   BUDDING.  187 

CHAPTER    XVI. 
PROPAGATION  BY  BUDDING. 

Budding,  is  the  art  of  taking  a  bud,  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  bark  adjoining,  from  one  plant  and  inserting 
it  in  another,  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  same  plant 
from  which  it  was  taken.  The  physiological  principles 
which  govern  the  operation  are  that  there  must  exist  an 
affinity  between  the  plant  from  which  the  bud  is  taken 
and  the  one., upon  which  it  is  to  be  placed,  and  the  nearer 
the  relationship  the  more  readily  will  it  unite  and  perfect 
the  union.  While  the  science  of  botany  assists  us  in 
determining  the  relationships  between  plants,  it  is  only 
by  practical  experience  that  the  affinity  between  the 
various  species  can  be  determined.  Two  species  of  trees 
of  the  same  genus  may  appear  to  be  botanically  very 
closely  allied,  and  yet  no  permanent  union  can  be  effected 
between  the  wood  of  the  two,  and  in  such,  cases  practical 
experience  must  necessarily  become  our  only  guide. 

In  budding  it  is  very  important  that  the  har^;  of  the 
stock  should  pjirt  readily  from  ,the  wood  ;  and  to  secure 
free  and  easy  separation  it  is  necessary  that  the  operation 
should  be  performed  when  the  flow  of  sap  .,is  abundant, 
because  if  the  bud  is  inserted  at  this  time  it  immediately 
comes  in  contact  with  that  nourishment  which  it  requires 
for  its  support.  The  sap  which  has  been  assimilated  by 
the  leaves  descends  mainly  through  the  inner  bark  and 
on  the  external  surface  of  the  wood  of  the  stock ;  it 
therefore  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  inside  of  the 
bark  adhering  to  the  bud,_and  is  transmitted  through  the 
exposed  cells  to  the  bud  itself,  which  thus  becomes 
attached  to  the  plant  upon  which  it  is  placed ;  or,  in 
other  words,  a  union  is  formed  between  the  two. 

For  budding  are  necessary  a  small  knife  for  preparing 
the  buds  for  insertion  and  opening  the  bark  of  the  stock 
to  admit  them,  and  a  quantity  of  some  material  to  tie 


188 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


around  the  stock  so  as  to  hold  the  bud  in  place.  Bud- 
ding knives  are  made  after  various  patterns ;  one  that 
is  commonly  used  has  an  ivory  or  bone  handle,  made 
very  thin  at  the  end,  that  is  used  to  peel  the  bark 
from  the  stock  where  the  bud  is  to  be  inserted,  figure 
70.  Another  form  of  budding  knife  is  made  with  a 
horn  handle,  with  a  small  tapering  piece  of  ivory  fastened 
in  the  end.  These  knives,  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
can  be  had  at  the  seed-stores,  but  another  and  quite 
a  different  form  of  budding  knife  is  shown  in  figure 


Fig.  70. — COMMONLY  USED  BUDDING  KNIFE. 

^1?  and  known  as  the  "Yankee  Budding  Knife."  It 
is  a  small  pocket  knife  with  a  thin  blade,  round  at 
the  end.  The  cutting  portion  extends  about  one-third 
around  the  end  of  the  blade  and  about  two-thirds  of  its 
length,  leaving  the  lower  part  dull.  Although  this  form 
of  budding  knife  has  been  in  use  in  some  of  our  older 
nurseries  for  the  past  fifty  years  or  more,  still  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  manufactured  for  the  general  trade, 
and  only  on  special  orders  from  nurserymen.  I  have 


Fig.   71.— YANKEE  BUDDING  KNIFE. 

used  this  knife  for  the  past  thirty  years,  and  prefer  it  to 
those  with  a  bone  or  ivory  spatula  for  lifting  the  bark  ; 
for  in  using  the  Yankee  Budding  Knife  there  is  no 
time  wasted  in  reversing  it,  as  is  necessary  with  those 
of  the  form  above  mentioned.  The  rounded  end  of 
the  blade  is  used  for  lifting  the  bark,  and  it  is  far  more 
convenient  than  any  form  of  knife  that  must  be  reversed 
in  the  hand  every  time  a  bud  is  inserted.  This  Yankee 
Budding  Knife  is  an  implement  especially  adapted  ta 


PROPAGATION   BY   BUDDING. 


189 


rapid  work  in  the  nursery.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  it  is  immaterial  what  form  of  knife  is  employed, 
provided  it  has  a  keen  edge  and  is  dexterously  used. 
The  material  most  commonly 
used  for  tying  in  the  hud  is  called 
Bass,  and  may  he  procured  at 
almost  any  seed-store,  or  it  can 
he  obtained  in  the  form  of  Bass 
mats  ;  but  when  it  cannot  be 
readily  had  in  either  of  these 
forms,  and  Basswood  trees  are 
at  hand,  their  inner  bark  may 
be  stripped  from  them  in  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  it  parts  freely 
from  the  wood.  By  immersing 
this  bark  in  water  from  two  to 
four  weeks  (varying  according  to 
the  temperature  of  the  water), 
the  bark  will  part  with  its  mu- 
cilaginous matter,  after  which  it 
may  be  divided  into  thin  layers 
resembling  fine  silk,  being  very 
soft  and  pliable.  Another  good 
tying  material  is  known  in  the 
trade  under  the  name  of  Kaffia 
or  Roffia,  and  of  late  years  it  has 
been  extensively  imported  for 
this  purpose,  and  is  now  kept  on 
sale  at  most  seed-stores.  It  is 
the  cuticle  of  the  leaves  of  a 
large  Palm,  the  Rhaphia  Ruffia, 
indigenous  to  Madagascar  and  Mauritius.  Raffia  is  some- 
what softer  and  more  pliable  than  the  ordinary  Bass  bark 
but  does  not  hold  its  form  as  well,  being  inclined  to  roll 
up  instead  of  remaining  flat  when  handled  in  tying.  Bass, 
and  similar  materials,  should  be  immersed  in  water  for  an 


Fig.  72.— STICK  OF  BUDS. 


190  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

hour  or  two  before  wanted  for  use,  in  order  to  increase  their 
pliableness  and  softness.  The  inner  bark  of  other  kinds 
of  trees  besides  the  Basswood  is  sometimes  used  for  this 
purpose,  also  woolen  yarn,  strips  of  cotton  cloth,  cotton 
wicking,  etc.,  but  Bass  is  more  extensively  used  than  any 
other  material.  In  selecting  buds  the  young  shoots  of 
the  present  season's  growth  are  usually  preferred,  and 
these  should  be  taken  from  Jhe  most  healthy  and  thriving 
branches.  The  leaves  should  be  immediately  removed, 
leaving  a  portion  of  the  leaf-stalk  attached,  as  shown  in 
figure  72.  If  the  leaves  have  fallen  from  the  twig,  it  is 
usually  thought  to  be  too  ripe  for  use,  but  in  some  in- 
stances such  buds  may  be  used  with  success.  If  there 
are  any  soft,  immature  buds  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
shoot,  or  any  undeveloped  ones  at  the  base,  they  should 
be  rejected.  But  success  in  budding  depends  very  largely 
upon  the  condition  of  the  stock  at  the  time  the  operation 
is  performed.  Unless  the  sap  is  flowing,  and  in  sufficient 
abundance  to  allow  the  bark  to  part,  or  peel,  freely  and 
easily  from  the  wood  underneath,  the  bud  is  certain  to 
fail.  If  the  buds  should  happen  to  be^a  little  oyer-ripe, 
or  wholly  dormant,  if  placed  in  direct  contact  with  the 
living  tissues  and  thin  juices  of  the  stock,  they  will 
absorb  moisture  and  nutriment,  and  they  are  far  more 
likely  to  unite  and  live  than  under  opposite  conditions. 

To  become  an  expert  in  budding,  the  following  rules 
may  be  observed:  Take  the  branch  in  the  left  hanj]  with 
the  small  end  pointing  under  the  left  arm  ;  insert  the 
knifo  blade  half  an  inch  below  the  bud,,  cutting  through 
T.  ]  *  tUe  baj^an  d  jjjittlejnto  thexwojx^pass  the  knife  under 
the  bud  and  bring  it  out  abov.e  it,  taking  off  the  bud  with 
the  bark,  and  a  thin  s!ico  of  wood  attached,  as  at  a,  iiguro 
7'v.  Then  (if  using-  the  Yankee  Budding  Knife)  let  the 
-j  J  forefinger  clasp  the  lower  part  of  the  blade,  make  the 
horizontal  incision  m  the  stock  firsthand  from  this  an  in- 
cision downward  about  an  inch  long,  being  careful  not 


PKOPAGATIOtf   BY   BUDDING. 


191 


to  cut  too  deep  ;  lift  up  the  edge  of  the  bark  by  passing 
the  back  of  the  blade  (without  removing  it)  up  to  the 
horizontal  incision.  Ldftthe  bark  on  the  other  side  in 
the  same  manner,  the  two  incisions  making  a  wound  on 
the  stock  resembling  the  letter  T,  as  shown  in  figure  73. 
If  other  forms  of  budding  knives  are  used  the  thin  end 
of  the  ivory  handle  is  thrust  under  the  bark,  raising  it 
sufficiently  to  admit  the  bud.  The  budder  holds  the  bud 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  left  hand  while 
making  the  incision  in  the  stock  •  and  as  the  knife  leaves 
it,  he  places  the  lower  point  of 
the  bark  attached  to  the  bud 
under  the  bark  of  the  .stocj; 
•before  this,  falls  back  into  plnrv\ 
and  thrusts  it  clown  into  posi- 
tion. If  the  upper  end  of  the 
bark  attached  to  the  bud  does 
not  pass  completely  under  the 
bark  of  the  stock,  it  must  be 
cut  across  so  as  to  allow  that 
which  remains  with  the  bud  to 
fall  into  place  and  rest  firmly  on 
the  wood  of  the  stock,  as  shown 
in  figure  74. 

When  the  bud.  is  fitted  to  the 
stock,  wind  the  Bass,  or  other 
material  used,  around  the  stock,  both  above  and  below, 
covering  the  entire  incision,  leaving  only  the  bud  and 
part  of  leaf-stalk  uncovered.  The  ligatures  should  be 
removed  or  loosened  as  soon  as  the  bud  has  become 
firmly  united  with  the  stock,  which  will  usually  be  in 
ten  or  fifteen  days,  if  at  all.  The  horizontal  incision  is 
somc.timj3s  made  below  the  perpendicular  one.  This 
allows  more  of  the  downward  flow  of  sap  to  reach,  the 
bud  than  when  cu,t  across  above  it,  as  no  cells  are  divided 
above  the  bud  ;  but  as  it  often  proves  detrimental,  and  is 


73. 

INCISION 

READY  FOB 

BUD. 


4. 

BUD  IN  POSI- 
TION. 


t 


192  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

not  so  convenient,  this  mode  is  rarely  practised,  except 
upon  plants  in  which  some  peculiar  condition  of  the  sap 
at  the  time  of  budding  seems  to  require  it. 

When  the  hud  is  taken  from  the  shoot,  as  represented 
in  figure  12,  c,  there  is  a  small  pi^c^j^^p^j^rem^ining 
under  the  eye,  which  in  hudding  some  kinds  of  plants  it 
may  be  desirable  to  remove,  although  it  is  almost  an 
universal  practice  in  this  country  to  let  the  wood  remain, 
and  doubtless  in  a  majority  of  cases,  and  with  most  kinds 
of  plants,  it  is  best  to  do  so  ;  but  there  are  many  Euro- 
pean propagators  of  plants  who  insist  that  a  more  per- 
manent union  can  be  secured  by  its  removal.  Certain 
French  nurserymen  claim  that  the  removal  of  the  wood 
is  quite  important  in  using  the  Quince  as  a  stock  for  the 
Pear,  preventing  overgrowing  or  "  knotting"  at  the  point 
of  union  between  stock  and  bud,  but  I  do  not  think  our 
own  nurserymen  have  found  in  their  experience  that  the 
removal  of  the  wood  in  the  ordinary  " shield  budding" 
is  an  advantage.  It  may  be  said,  however,  in  its  favor, 
that  when  buds  are  to  be  taken  from  large  stock  branches, 
like  those  produced  by  some  varieties  of  the  Pear  and 
4  certain  species  of  the  Magnolia,  that  hj^je 
^opj,  we  gp^rftjajyuiffjiffig  shjelrM-.Q  fifit  ^ 
surface  of  the  stock,  thereby  making  a  better  mechanical 
joirungof  jj^two^than  could  be  made  otherwise.  Vari- 
ous devices  have  been  employed  for  removing  the  wood 
from  buds,  in  addition  to  the  more  common  one  of  lift- 
ing it  out  with  the  point  %of  the  budding  knife,  raising 
the  upper  end  first,  and  peeling  it  downward  to  avoid 
breaking  out  the  center  or  heart  of  the  bud  too  deep,  as 
is  likely  to  occur  if  the  lower  end  of  the  wood  is  lifted 
first  and  then  pulled  out  from  thid  direction. 

But  if  the  w-ood  is  to  be  removed  from  any  considerable 
number.of  buds,  branches  should  be  used  from  which  the 
bark  will  readily  peel  .without  tearing  or  breaking  the 
fibres,  and  the  buds  removed  as  follows  :  Hold  the 


PKOPAGATION   BY   BUDDING. 


193 


branch  or  shoot  containing  the  buds  in  the  left  hand,  and 
with  the  smaller  end  towards  you  ;  insert  the  knife  blade 
about  one  inch  below  the  bud  ;  cut^a  little^deep^r  thaji 
you  would  if  the  wood  was  to 

J  ii  _  i      i"        ^*      _^^^__ 

above  the  bud  about  one  inch, 
then  cut  across  through  the 
bark  only,  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  bud  (see  figure  75), 
then  with  the  finger  and 
thumb  lift  up  the  bark,  at 
the  same  time  press  gently 
forward,  and  the  bark  and  bud 
(a)  will  come  off,  leaving  the 
wood  beneath  (b)  adhering  to 
the  branch.  Examine  the 
bud  after  it  has  been  removed 
to  ascertain  whether  the  chit, 
as  it  is  called,  hasTGeen  broken 
off  veven  with  the  inside,  sur- 
face of  the  bark  .orwrlnin  the 


bud,  leaving  a 

latter,    there-  is   danger  that 

while   the   bark    around    the 

bud  will  unite  with  the  stock, 

the  bud  itself  may  fail  to  grow 

unless  the  flow  of  assimilated 

sap  on  the  stock  is  sufficiently 

abundant    to   fill    the    cavity 

witli^  cambium  soon  after  the 

bud  is  inserted.     But  the  par- 

ticular manner  in  which  buds 

are  taken  from  the  twig,  or 

inserted  in  the  stock,  will  make  hjit  little  difference,  pro- 

vided the  buds  are  fresh  and  the  bp^atJQn  is  carjajujly 

performed  at  the  proper  time.     One  operator  will  insist 

that  the  best  wav  to  make  the  horizontal  incision  in  the 


Fig,  75.— REMOVING  THE  BUD. 


194  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

"took  is  by  giving  the  edge  of  the  knife  a  sloping  inclin- 
ation downward,  as  shown  in  figure  76.  This  form  has 
its  advantages,  as  well  as  disadvantages.  The  point  of 
the  bark  to  which  the  bud  is  attached  is  more  readily 
inserted  under  the  bark  of  the  stock  than  when  the  in- 
cision is  made  square,  but  it  also  permits  the  water  which 
falls  upon  the  stock  to  enter  the  wound,  often  to  the 
injury  of  the  inserted  bud.  This  method  is  given  in 
"Warder's  American  Pomology,"  and  is  there  called 
(t  Mr.  Jackson's  method." 

The   sloping   incision  would  naturally  suggest  itself 
to  any  one  who  desired  to  insert  buds  very  rapidly,  because 


Fig.    70.— BUDDING  SLOPING  CUT. 

if  the  stocks  were  in  a  proper  condition  the  buds  could 
be  thrust  home  without  resorting  to  the  knife  for  the 
purpose  of  lifting  the  bark  ;  although  it  must  be  admit- 
ted that,  as  a  general  rule,  to  lift  the  bark  with  the  knife 
is  far  better  than  to  do  it  with  the  bud.  The  bark  and 
wood  to  which  the  bud  is  attached  are  not  usually  firm 
enough  to  resist,  without  injury,  the  pressure  required  to 
cleave  the  bark  from  the  stock. 

The  time  for  budding  most  kinds  of  hardy  plants  is 
usually  during   their  growth  an  .summer,  varying  the 


PROPAGATION   BY   BUDDING.  195 

season  to  suit  the  different  species,  varieties,  localities 
and  soils.  The  experienced  propagator,  who  has  become 
acquainted  with  the  habits  of  various  species,  usually 
delays  the  qperatio^  until^the  stock  has  passed  its  seas.on 
of  most. rapid  growth,  for  he  has  learned  that  if  the  bud 
is  inserted  too  early  in  the  season,  the  stock  may  over- 
grow and  smother  it.  Then,  again,  buds  which  are  set 
too  early  will  often  push  into  growth,  and  not  having 
sufficient  time  to  mature  their  wood  before  winter,  are 
killed  by  cold.  Pinching  off  the  ends  of  the  new  shoots, 
when  a  few  inches  long,  will  usually  check  the  growth 
and  hasten  maturity ;  but  buds  which  make  no  growth 
the  first  season  are  in  the  best  condition  to  resist  the  cold 
of  winter.  Eemoving  the  ligature  with  which  the  bud  is 
tied,  as  soon  as  a  union  is  formed  between  bud  and  stock, 
will  usually  prevent  premature  or  fall  growth. 

Although  summer  is  the  best  season  for  budding  most 
kinds  of  plants,  still,  the  operation  may  of  ten  be  success- 
fully performed  in  the  spring,  when  vegetation  is  just 
starting  into  growth,  or  when  the  sap  has  begun  to  flow 
freely.  The  branches  from  which  the  buds  are  to  be  taken 
are  usually  cut  from  the  parent  plant  early  in  winter  and 
packed  away  where  the  buds  will  remain  dormant  and  yet 
keep  alive  and  uninjured  until  wanted  for  use.  Budding 
in  spring  is  performed  precisely  as  in  the  summer,  except 
that  bhere  should  be  no  attempt  at  removing  the  wood. 
Buds  may  also  be  removed  from  one  tree  and  inserted 
into  another  in  the  spring,  if  both  stock  and  cion  are  in 
the  same  condition,  but  the  operation  is  not  generally  as 
successful  as  summer  budding. 

With  trees  and  shrubs  which  have  a  very  thick  bark, 
such  as  Hickory  and  Magnolia,  or  even  those  with  a 
thinner  bark,  like  the  Chestnut,  Cherry,  ^etc.,  the  annu- 
lar or  rjng  budding  may  be  performed  in  the  spring  after 
growth  has  commenced,  and  in  some  instances  it  may  be 
found  convenient  for  saving  some  choice  species  or  vari- 


196 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


eties,  but  it  is  too  slow  a  mode  for  general  use.  It  differs 
from  other  methods  in  several  particulars,  but  the  main 
one  is  that  the  bud  is  not  inserted  under  the  bark  of  the 
stock  but  fitted  to  it.  A  ring  of  bark  passing  nearly  or 
quite  around  the  stem  uponjvhich  there  is  a  tnid ..i_s_taljen 
from  the  branch,  aad  a  similar  ring  is  cut  from  the  stock, 
id  the  bud  and  bark  are  fitted  into  this  and  then  care- 
fully tied  ia  place.  The  branch 
from  which  the  bud  is  taken,  and 
the  stock  to  which  it  is  affixed, 
should  be  of  nearly  the  same  size, 
although  a  piece  of  bark  may  be 
taken  off  from  the  bud,  or  the 
same  added  to  it,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a  close  joint.  Figure  77 
shows  a  stock  with  a  ring  of  bark 
removed  (#),  and  another  (a)  with 
bud  ready  to  clasp  arourd  it. 
This  method  of  pudding  or  gi;aft- 
jng,.for  it  may  be  considered  under 
either  head,  is  termed  "Jflute 
grafting"  by  European  horticul- 
turists, and  it  is  more  generally 
performed  in  spring  than  later  in 
the  season.  When  only  a  small 
section  of  bark  is  removed  with 
the  bud,  and  this  fitted  to  the  stock  by  removing  a  similar 
section,  it  is  called  "veneer  shield  budding,"  as  it  is 
intermediate  between  the  ordinary  budding  and  the 
annular  or  flute  grafting. 

Like  other  methods  of  propagating  plants,  pudding 
may  be  performed  in  various  ways.  The  exact  size  or 
form  of  the  bud  or  stock  is  not  so  very  essential ;  the 
main  thing  to  be  observed  is,  their  condition  at  the  time 
the  operation  is  performed.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  new  plant-cells  must  be  formed  before  a  permanent 


Fig.  77. 

FLUTE  BUDDING. 


PROPAGATION   BY   BUDDING.  197 

union  can  take  place  ;  consequently,  both  bud  and  sjtock 
shou4dj3e_iiLa  condition^  to  produce  cells  soon  after  the 
junction  of  these  is  artificially  made".  As~1bhe  delicate 
tissues  of  growing  wood  and  bark  are  very  sensitive  to 
exposure,  it  is  apparent  that  in  performing  the  operation 
of!) udding,  in  any  of  its  forms,  it  should  be  done^s^rap^ 
i(lly  as  possible  compatible  with  completeness  of  execu- 
tion. The  young  wood  containing  the  bud  is,  however, 
not  so  perishable  as  to  prevent  the  preserving  of  them  for 
several  days  in  good  condition,  and  it  has  recently  become 
quite  a  general  practice  among  nurserymen  to  supply 
their  customers  at  a  distance  from  the  nursery  with  buds 
of  various  kinds  during  the  season.  When  the  sticks  of 
buds,  as  they  are  termed,  are  cut  from  the  tree,  the  leaves 
should  be  removed,  leaving  about  an  inch  of  the  petiole, 
or  leaf-stalk,  attached  to  the  branch  for  convenience  in 
handling  the  bud  at  the  time  it  is  inserted  in  the  stock. 
The  sticks  of  buds  should  then  be  wrapped  in  damp 
moss  that  will  keep  them  in  good  condition  for  several 
days,  but  the  less  interval  that  elapses  between  the  time 
they  are  cut  and  that  when  they  are  used,  the  better.  In 
the  ordinary  and  more  common  modes  of  budding,  dur- 
ing the  months  of  July,  August  and  September,  in  tem- 
perate climates,  the  bud  is  not  expected  to  push  into 
growth  until  the  following  spring,  it  remaining  in  a  dor- 
mant state  through  the  winter  months.  Whether  the 
budding  should  .be  performed  during  the  first  or  last 
month  named,  will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the 
stocks,  but  those  kinds  that  complete  their  growth  ear- 
liest in  the  season,  should  be  budded  first.  If  the  stocks 
.are  likely  to  cease  growing  before  the  buds  are  ready 
for  use,  the  maturing  of  the  latter  may  be  hastened  by 
pinching  off  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  thereby  throwing  all 
the  sajp  into  that  part  which  remains.  The  buds  should 
be  plump  and  of  good  form  and  substance,  a  condition 
which  may  be  readily  understood  by  an  examination  of 
shoots  in  different  stages  of  growth. 


198  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

If  the  stocks  are  very  vigorous  and  are  budded  early, 
there  will  be  danger  that  the  ligatures  may  cut  into  the 
bark,  as  the  stock  increases  in  diameter.  It  would  be 
safest  to  leave  the  ligatures  on  the  stock  until  the  follow- 
ing spring,  provided  the  budding  could  always  be  done 
at  just  the  right  moment  to  insure  a  firm  union,  and  no 
more,  when  frosts  come  to  check  growth,  but  this  so  sel- 
dom occurs,  that  in  a  majority  of  instances  the  ties  will 
need  to  be  loosened  within  ten  or  fifteen  days  after  the 
buds  are  inserted.  It  is  not  always  advisable  to  remove 
the  ligatures,  but  merely  to  loosen  them  .sufficiently  to 
admit  of  an  expansion  of  the  stock,  and  prevent  strangu- 
lation and  the  forcing  of  the  bud  to  make  a  premature 
growth.  If  the  buds  should  be  forced  into  growth,  there 
is  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  head  back  the  stocks  and  let 
the  buds  grow  as  rapidly  as  possible  until  checked  by  cold 
weather.  Some  of  the  lower  buds  on  these  premature 
shoots  may  escape  destruction  the  ensuing  winter ;  if  so, 
they  should  be  head-ed  back  to  a  strong,  well-developed 
bud,  and  this  may  produce  a  strong  and  vigorous  shoot. 

Under  ordinary. circumstances,  budded  stocks  should 
not  be  headed  back  until  the  following  spring,  and  then 
severed  at  a  point  four  or  five  inches  above  the  inserted 
bud.  This  stump  serves  as  a  support  to  which  the  new 
growth  may  be  tied,  to  prevent  it  from  being  broken  out 
by  the  wind.  A|l  sprouts  which  may  push  out  from  the 
stock,  either  below  or  above  the  bud,  must  be  jobbed  off 
from  time  to  time,  as  they  appear.  Later  in  summer, 
when  the  new  stem  has  become  somewhat  mature,  the 
stump  of  the  stock  may  be  cut  away  with  a  sloping  cut, 
at  the  lowest  point  opposite  the  bud.  With  weak,  slen- 
der-growing trees,  the  young  plant  may  require  staking 
for  the  first  year  or  two,  in  order  to  secure  a  straight  stem. 

The  rapidity  with  which  budding  can  be  done  by  an 
expert  is  astonishing  to  a  novice  or  an  amateur  who  will 
spend  several  minutes  in  properly  placing  a  single  bud. 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING.  199 

I  have  known  men  who  considered  200  an  hour  an  easy 
task,  and  there  are  a  few  who  will  set  many  more  than 
that,  under  favorable  circumstances.  Practice  makes  ex- 
pedition as  well  as  perfection. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 


Grafting  is  governed  by  the  same  physiological  prin- 
ciples as  budding.  There  must  exist  an  affinity  between 
the  stock  and  cion  ;  if  not,  a  permanent  union  is  im- 
possible. 

With  some  of  the  Anodes  in  use,  the  operation  is  very 
similar  to  that  ofbudding,  but  with  this  important4iffert 
ence,  that  in  grafting  a  larger  section  .of  the  plant  to  be 
propagated  is  used  than  in  budding  ;  besides,  it  can  be 
performed  upon  a  great  variety  of  plants  while  they  are 
dormant. 

The  art  of  grafting  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  methods 
known  of  multiplying  individual  species  and  varieties  of 
plants  ;  still,  there  is  at  this  late  day,  scarcely  one  person 
in  a  hundred,  among  those  who  cultivate  fruits  who  suf- 
ficiently understands  the  process  to  put  it  into  successful 
practice.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all  the  most  common 
methods  of  propagating  plants,  oft-repeated,  but  seldom 
learned  by  any  considerable  number  of  persons  of  any  one 
generation. 

Thro  viorh  the  ingenuity  of  horticulturists  a  great  num- 
ber of  different  modes  of  grafting  have  been  invented, 
and  practised  to  a  somewhat  limited  extent,  but  of  the 
majority  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  are  of  no  practical 
value,  merely  showing  jn^  how  many  digejre^,^^^^ 
cells  of  plants  may  be  forced  to^  unite.  As  it  would  be 


200  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

only  a  waste  of  time  and  valuable  space  to  enumerate  the 
many  different  modes  of  grafting,  only  those  possessing 
the  most  merit,  and  such  as  have  been  approved  by  skil- 
ful propagators,  will  be  described  in  the  following  pages. 

There  has  also  been  a  large  number  of  grafting  machines 
invented,  several  of  them  patented  .in  this  country  and 
Europe,  but  practical  propagators  seldom  employ  them 
in  their  work.  The  French  gardeners,  and  especially  the 
vineyardists  of  France,  have  been  quite  prolific  in  inven- 
tions of  this  kind,  and  since  the  advent  of  the  Phylloxera 
in  the  vineyards  of  Europe,  grafting  machines  have  been 
in  greater  demand,  as  they  are  thought  to  be  of  some  ad- 
vantage in  grafting  the  Grape.  As  the  species  of  Grape 
indigenous  to  North  America  are  supposed  to  more  suc- 
cessfully resist  the  attacks  of  the  Phylloxera  than  the 
European  varieties,  the  former  are  now  extensively  em- 
ployed as  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  the  latter.  Among 
the  various  European  implements  recommended  in  graft- 
ing vines,  the  following  are  perhaps  the  best  known  kinds  : 
M.  Petit's  Cleft  Grafter  ;  Leyder's  Grafting  Implement ; 
Bordguer's  Grafting  Tool  ;  Trabuc's  Grafter ;  Sabatier's 
Implement  for  grafting  in-doors,  and  another  for  out- 
door work  ;  Vincent's  Grafter,  and  Pelanquier's  Grafter. 
Some  of  these  implements  are  of  very  complicated  con- 
struction, and  not  only  cut  off  and  prepare  the  stock  for 
the  reception  of  the  cion,  but  tie  it  in  when  inserted. 

An  American  implement  for  grafting  the  Grape,  con- 
sists of  two  saw-blades  placed  side  by  side,  for  cutting 
the  cleft  in  large  stocks,  and  an  accompanying  imple- 
ment, consisting  of  two  knife-blades  set  in  a  lever,  for 
cutting  the  cions  of  the  proper  thickness  to  fill  the  saw- 
cleft  in  the  stock.  This  implement,  although  at  one 
time  highly  recommended  and  somewhat  extensively  em- 
ployed in  grafting  old  and  large  vines,  appears  to  have 
gone  out  of  use,  like  others  of  its  kind. 

T_he  ordinary  implements  used  in  grafting,  are  :  a  small 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING. 

saw,  for  cut  ting.  off.  the  heads. of  large^tpcl^  or_  branches 


make  clefts  in  the  stock  ;  a  small  knife  with  which  to  pre- 
pare the  cion;  a  wedge,  or  grafting  chisel,  and  a  small 
mallet.  The  above-named  implements  are  often  made  of 
petrtmar  patterns,  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  operator,  but 
the  main  thing  is,  to  have  the  work  well  dpne.  Other 
kinds  of~fmplements  are  used  in  performing  particular 
modes  of  grafting,  which  I  shall  have  occasion  to  men- 
tion as  the  different  processes  are  described.  In  addition 
to  these,  bass  or  raffia  strings,  such  as  are  used  in  budding, 
for  tying  in  the  grafts,  and  grafting-wax^fco^coyertjie 
wounds  and  protect  them  from  the  air  and  water,  are 
necessary? — -— *• 

lyVVUM^ '    fllAJjfrtMftj  1M*  CMLlMwCA/^Vy  'i 

GRAFTING- WAX.— There  arTTtmny  kinds  of  grafting- 
wax,  as  welT  as  other  compositions  for  the  same  purpose. 
A  composition,  made  of  clay,  fresh  cow  manure,  and  fine 
straw  or  grass,  was  the  principal  material  used  m  graftiffg 
untillhe  present  century,  and  it  is  still  used  occasionally, 
and  with  such  good  results  that  it  should  not  be  entirely 
ignored  or  overlooked.  It  may  be  prepared  as  follows  : 
Take  a  quantity  of  good,  strong  clay,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  fresh  cow  manure  ;  add  sufficient  water  to  make  it  the 
consistence  of  thick  paste  ;  add  a  little  fine-cut  grass  or 
straw  ;  if  a  little  salt — say  about  one  pint  to  the  bushel — • 
is  added,  it  will  assist  it  in  retaining  moisture,  when  ap- 
plied to  the  stock  and  cion.  Tl^is  composition  should  be 
made  several  weejss  before  it  is  wanted  for  use,  and  be 
thorougly  worked  over  as  often  as  once  a  week  until 
used,  for  the  more  it  is  manipulated  the  better.  This 
composition  is  but  little  used  at  the  present  day,  but  for 
some  kinds  of  coarse  grafting  on  large,  open-grained 
wood,  it  will  retain  moisture  longer  and  protest  the  cion 
better  than  the  more  modern  grafting-wax.  There  are 
many  different  kinds  of  grafting  compositions  recom- 
mended by  the  authors  of  works  on  gardening,  which 


202  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

shows  that  the  exact  proportions  of  materials,  or,  in  fact, 
the  materials  themselves,  if  of  like  nature,  are  not  very 
essential  to  success.  For  grafting  in  the  open  air,  the 
following  compound  is  probably  more  generally  used  in 
this  country  than  any  other  :  Common  rosin,  four  parts  ; 
beeswax,  two  parts  ;  tallowy  one  part — melted  together ; 
and  after  it  is  cool,  it  is  applied  by  hand,  or,  when  in 
a  liquid  state  (being  melted),  it  may  be  applied  with  a 
brush  or  spread  thinly  upon  tough  paper  or  muslin,  and 
the  latter  cut  up  into  strips  of  convenient  size  for  use. 
If  the  wax  is  to  be  used  in  cool  weather,  then  add  a  little 
more  tallow.  Linseed  oil  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of 
tallow  in  the  following  proportions  :  Rosin,  six  pounds  ; 
beeswax,  two  pounds  ;  linseed  oil,  one  pint.  From  my 
own  experience,  I  consider  .tallow  much  preferable  to  oil, 
and  I  would  warn  the  novice  against  using  indiscrim- 
inately the  different  .kinds  of  oils  often  sold  under  the 
name  of  linseed.  In  Europe,  Burgundy  pitch  is  more 
generally  used  in  making  grafting-wax  than  in  this 
country.  Some  of  the  French  authors  recommend  the 
following  :  Melt  together  two  pounds  twelve  ounces  of 
rosin,  and  one  pound  and  eleven  ounces  of  Burgundy 
pitch.  At  the  same  time  melt  nine  ounces  of  tallow ; 
pour  the  latter  into  the  former,  while  both  are  hot,  and 
stir  the  mixture  thoroughly.  Then  add  eighteen  ounces 
of  red  ochre,  dropping  it  in  gradually  and  stirring  the 
mixture  at  the  same  time.  After  the  composition  has 
cooled  sufficiently,  work  it  well  with  the  hands.  If  this 
wax  is  to  be  used  out  of  doors  in  cool  weather,  it  should 
be  carried  in  a  vessel  like  an  ordinary  glue-pot,  in  order 
to  keep  it  in  a  semi-fluid  condition.  All  the  above  kinds 
of  wax  may  be  spread  upon  cloth  or  tough  paper  with  a 
brush,  when  warm,  and  the  paper  or  cloth  cut  up  when 
the  wax  is  cool.  In  what  is  called  splice  or  whip-graft- 
ing, these  waxed  strips  will  be  found  very  convenient  for 
wrapping  about  the  parts  united. 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING.  203 

The  French  Mastic,  so  long  known  as  "Lefort's 
Liquid  Graf  ting- Wax,"  is  made  by  melting  one  pound  of 
common  rosin  over  a  gentle  fire,  adding  one  ounce  of 
beef  tallow,  the  latter  to  be  well  stirred  in.  Take  it 
from  the  fire,  let  it  cool  down  a  little,  and  then  mix  in 
eight  ounces  of  alcohol.  The  alcohol  will  cool  down 
the  mixture  so  rapidly  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  place 
it  over  the  fire  again.  The  utmost  care  must  be  exer- 
cised to  prevent  the  alcohol  from  taking  fire.  The  com- 
position should  be  kept  in  tin  boxes  or  glass  jars  until 
wanted  for  use.  This  mastic  is  highly  recommended  by 
the  nurserymen  of  France,  but  as  its  composition  and 
mode  of  making  were  until  quite  recently  a  kept  secret, 
it  has  been  used  only  in  very  limited  quantities  in  this 
country,  owing  to  the  cost  of  importing  it. 

In  all  the  different  modes  of  grafting  great  care  should 
be  observed  in  having  the  external  surface  of  the  wood  of 
the  stock  and  cion  exactly  even, — no  matter  whether  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bark  is  even  or  not.  This  allows 
the  new  cells  which  form  between  the  bark  and  wood,  of 
both  stock  and  cionv  to  uiaite  and  form  channels  through 
which  the  sap  can  readily  pass.  The  sap  ascends  through 
the  wood  of  the  stock  into  that  of  the  cion  (graft),  caus- 
ing the  leaves  to  expand,  which,  in  their  turn,  assimilate 
it  preparatory  to  its  descent,  as  stated  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

Thejtime  for  grafting  most  kinds  of  woody  plants  in 
the  open  air  or  nursery  is  in  the  spring,  just  before,  or 
soon  after,  the  sap  begins  to  flow  most  rapidly,  varying 
the  time  according  to  the  nature  of  the  different  species 
to  bo  operated  upon,  for  experience  has  demonstrated 
that  some  kinds  should  be  grafted  much  earlier  than 
others,  without  regard  to  any  apparent  movement  of  the 
§ap.  These  variations  in  the  time  of  grafting,  as  well  as 
in  the  condition  of  the  stock,  will  be  referred  to  more 
fully  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 


204  PKOPAGATIOK   OF   PLANTS. 

In  cold  climates,  the  young  slender  branches  of  even 
the  most  hardy  deciduous  trees  are  often  injured  by  the 
severe  frosts  of  winter  ;  therefore,  when  such  twigs  or 
branches  are  wanted  for  cions,  it  is  best  to  take  them 
from  the  parent  stock  in  autumn,  soon  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  and  preserve  them  in  earth,  saw-dust,  char- 
coal, sand,  mqss,  or  some  similar  material,  where  they  will 
be  cool — not  frozen — and  just  sufficiently  moist  to  prevent 
shriveling.  Cions  of  the^ripe  wood  of  some  kinds  of  trees 
may  be  taken  from  the  parent  plant  in  the  spring,  at  the 
time  they  are  wanted  for  use  ;  but  their  vitality  is  often 
weakened  by  the  severity  of  the  weather,  and  the  delicate 
tissues  injured  to  such  an  extent  that  they  will  not  form 
what  is  called  "granulations" — although  it  is  precisely 
the  same  as  the  callus  on  cuttings — which  fill  up  any  small 
interstices  that  may  exist  between  the  stock  and  cion,  al- 
lowing of  the  transmission  of  sap  from  one  to  the  other. 
Furthermore,  in  grafting  plants  while  in  a  semi-dormant 
state,  it  is  well  to  secure  as  great  a  difference  as  practicable 
in  the  density  of  the  fluids  of  the  stock  and  cion,  in  order 
to  ensure  the  endosmose  and  exosmose  movement  of  the 
sap,  as  explained  in  Chapter  I.,  and  to  secure  this  condi- 
tion we  have  only  to  keep  the  branches  selected  for  cions 
in  a  dormant  state  until  the  sap  of  the  stock  has  begun 
to  flow  in  spring.  While  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  positively 
necessary  in  every  instance  that  there  should  be  any  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  density  of  the  fluids  of  the 
stock  and  cion,  to  insure  success  in  grafting,  still,  with 
some  kinds  of  trees,  a  difference  in  condition  is  rather  to 
be  sought  than  otherwise. 

CLEFT  GEAFTING. — This  method  is  the  original  or  most 
primitive  of  all  the  different  modes  of  grafting  trees,  and 
it  is  principally  used  upon  large  stocks  or  on  the  brancLes 
of  old  trees.  It  is  rather  a  bungling,  unscientific  method 
of  grafting,  exposing  an  unnecessary  amount  of  surface 
to  be  healed  over  by  a  new  growth,  and  the  scars  made  in 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING. 


205 


the  operation  are  seldom  or  never  entirely  obliterated. 
It  is,  however,  extensively  employed  in  re-grafting  old 
orchards,  and  in  utilizing  large  stocks,  in  order  to  obtain 
bearing  trees  in  less  time  than  if  smaller  and  younger 
ones  were  used. 

The  stock  is  first  cut  off  at  a  point  where  it  is  desirable 
to  insert  the  cion  ;  it  is  then  split  with  a  large  knife  or 
thin  chisel — being  careful  to  divide  the  bark  at  the  same 


a 


Fig  78. 

USE  OF   THE  WEDGE. 


CLEFT   GRAFTING. 


Fig.  79. 
CION  AND   STOCK. 


time,  leaving  the  edges  smooth.  When  the  knife  is  with- 
drawn, an  iron,  or  hard-wood,  wedge  is  inserted  in  the 
center  or  afc  the  side  of  the  stock,  as  shown  in  figure  78  ; 
the  cion,  #,  figure  79,  is  then  cut  in  the  form  of  a  wedge, 
b,  and  fitted  into  the  cleft,  c;  the  wedge  is  then. with- 
drawn, and  the  elasticity  of  the  stock  will  hold  it  in  its 
place.  Grafting-wax  is  then  applied,  entirely  covering 
the  wound.  When  the  stock  is  an  inch  or  more  in  diam- 
eter, two  cions  may  be  inserted,  one  on  each  side,  the 
operator  being  careful  to  place  the  external  surface  of  tl^e 
\Efiund—  not  bark — of  both  cion  and  stock  exactly  even  ; 


206 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


a 


at  least  they  should  meet  at  some  one  point ;  and  to  make 
sure  of  this,  some  grafters  set  the  cions  slightly  inclining 
inward,  as  shown  in  figure  80— a,  the  upper  part  of  the 

cion  ;  £,  the  lower  end. 
The  cion  may  be  two  or 
three  inches  long,  con- 
taining one  or  more  buds. 
The  bark  011  the  cion y? ill 
usually  be  thinner  than 
that  on  the  stock  ;  ,but 
this  is  of  no  consequence, 
provided  the  edges  of  the 
wound  are  even,  bringing 
the  bark  of  the  cion  and 
stock  in  direct  contact. 
— -  ~"  '  In  stocks  of  less  size,  they 
irm  may  be  cut  off  with  an 
upward  slope  and  the  cion 
inserted  on  the  upper  or 
lower  side  ;  some  grafters  prefer  one  and  some  the  other, 
but  I  have  often  set  cions  in  both  positions  without  dis- 
covering that  either  had  any  advantage. 

QROWN  GRAFTING. — This  is  but  a  mere  modification 
of  the  clef t  graft,  but  instead  of  splitting  the  stock  to 
receive  the  cion,  the  latter  is  sloped  off  thinly  on  one 
side,  the  bark  divided  from  the  top  of  the  stock  down- 
ward for  an  inch  or  more,  and  then  lifted  slightly,  as  in 
budding ;  the  cion  is  then  inserted  under  the  Lark  of 
the  stock  and  held  in  place  by  strips  of  waxed  cloth. 
This  form  of  grafting  cannot  be  done  until  the  bark  of 
the  stock  will  peel  readily ;  consequently,  it  is  usually 
performed  later  in  the  season  than  the  ordinary  cleft 
grafting.  Another  form  of  crown  grafting  is  shown  in 
figure  81,  The  cion  is  cut  about  half-way  through,  as 
shown  at  B,  and  the  wood  removed,  leaving  a  square 
shoulder  at  top,  and  opposite  to  a  well-developed  bud. 


Fi£.  80. 

OL^FT   GRAFT  WITH   TWO  CIONS. 


PROPAGATION   BY  GRAFTING. 


207 


From  the  stock,  d,  d,  d,  d,  the  bark  is  removed  to  admit 
the  cion  ;  one  to  four  cions,  as  shown,  may  be  fitted  to  a 
stock,  and  then  all  are  held  in  place  by  a  ligature  of  waxed 
cloth,  and  the  top  of  the  stock  also  covered  with  wax. 
This  mode  of  grafting  is  usually  considered  best  adapted 
to  large  stocks,  such  as  are  not  suitable  for  the  ordinary 
cleft  grafting,  but  it  may  be  used  for  stocks  of  quite  small 
size.  The  exposed  wood  of  the  upper  end  of  the  cipn 
should  also  be  covered  with  wax,  to  prevent  evaporation 
of  moisture  therefrom,  and  with  some  kinds  of  trees, 


Fig.  81. — CROWN  GRAFTING. 

such  as  the  Hickories,  "Walnuts  and  Chestnuts,  it  is  well 
to  cover  or -enclose  the  entire -head  of  the  stock  and  cions 
with  a  hood  made  of  oiled  paper  or  thin  muslin,  until  the 
buds  on  the  cions  push  into  growth.  This  shading  and 
protection  against  drying  winds,  often  secures  the  growth 
of  the  cions  when,  if  left  exposed,  they  would  fail. 

TRIANGULAR  CROWN  GRAFTING. — This  is  only  an- 
other form  of  the  preceding  mode,  and  one  that  should 
have  long  ago  taken  the  place  of  the  more  clumsy  method 
of  cleft  grafting.  In  this,  the  stock  is  not  split,  but  in- 
stead, a  triangular  incision  is  made  in  the  side  of  the 
stock,  as  shown  in  figure  82,  r,  and  the  cion  cut  in  the 


208 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


same  form  and  fitted  into  the  cleft,  as  seen  in  the  right- 
hand  figure.     An  implement,  called  a  cleft-cutter,  figure 


.  82. — TRIANGULAR  CROWN  GRAFTING. 


83,  is  sometimes  used  for  making  the  incision  in  the 
stock ;  but  it  is  not  indispensable,  as  the  cleft  can  be 
made  almost  as  readily  with  a  good,  sharp  knife.  The 


Ffe.  83. 

cions  are,  as  is  usual  in  such  methods  of  grafting,  held 
in  position  by  ligatures  of  waxed  cloth. 

SIDE  CROWN  GRAFTING. — This  mode  of  grafting  is 
employed  principally  o.n  large  stocks  and  at  the  collar  or 
crown  above  the  main  roots,  and  with  species  that  can- 
not be  "feadily~divided  or  split  to  receive  the  cion,  as  in 
the  ordinary  cleft  grafting.  Sometimes  the  wood  at  this 
point  is  gnarled  and  so  cross-grained  that  a  smooth  cleft 
cannot  be  made  with  a. knife,  and  with  such  the  side 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING.  209 

crown  graft  may  be  employed.  The  stock  is  cut  oft  level 
wither  a  littlejjelow  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  in  ..fig-  , 
ure  84.  The  cion,  B,  is  severed  to  about  two-thirds  of, 
its  diameter,  and  this  portion  removed,  forming  .a 
shoulder  at  ,C;  the  remaining  part  is  pared  smooth  and 
thin  aTTTEe  lower  end.  The  stock,  having  been  cut  off 
at  D,  and  the  b$rk,  E9  remQvedj^I^aJ:hiii§lice  of  wood, 


Fig.  84.— SIDE  CKOWN  GRAFTING. 

to  correspond  with  ,the  lip  of  the  cion,,  which  is  then 
fitted  to  it,  tlre^shouloTelrof 'the  cion  resting  upon  the 
top  of  the  stock,  or  both  iray  be  notched,  as  shown  in 
figure  84.  The  cion  and  stock  are  then  ^tied  with  bass 
or  waxed  cloth  and  the  soil  drawn  back  over  the  head  of 
the  stock  covering  the  cion,  except  the  terminal  bud,  A. 
It  often  occurs  that  cions  of  rare  varieties  of  ornamental 
trees  are  obtained  by  persons  who  have  no  suitable  stocks 


210 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


on  which  to  use  them,  although  large  trees  of  closely 
allied  species  may  be  near  at  hand.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  large  roots  of  old  trees  may  be  employed  as 
stocks  without  removing  them  from  the  ground.  In 
using  such  stocks,  the  soil  should  be  removed  from  over 
the  roots  seyer-al  feet  from  the  main  .stenx  of  the  tree, 
varying  the  distance  according  to  the  age  and  probable 
size  of  the  roots  sought.  The  < root  is  then  qut  off  .and 
the  end  brought  to  the  surface,  as  shown  in  figure  85, 
and  the  cion  inserted  or  affixed  in  any  of  the  different 
modes  of  crown  or  cleft  grafting.  It  must  be  apparent 
that  a  large  root  of  this  kind  will  supply  a  cion  with  ma- 


Fig.  85.  — SIDE  CROWN  GRAFTING  ON  ROOTS. 

terials  for  making  a  vigorous  growth,  which  may  be  util- 
ized as  c'ions  when  a  better  class  of  stocks  have  been 
raised  or  otherwise  procured. 

,SADDI<£  GE^FTIKG. — This  is  a  neat  but  somewhat  tedi- 
ouslnocle  of  grafting,  consequently  seldom  practised,  ex- 
cept by  amateurs  in  gardening  who  can  spare  the  time 
necessary  for  such  complicated  operations.  It  is  em- 
ployed principally  upon  small  stocks,  qr  on  the  terminal 
shoots  of  young  trees.  The  stock  and  cion  should  be 
nearly  of  the  same  size,  although  the  stock  may  be  a  little 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING. 


211 


larger  without  making  any  material  difference  in  the  re- 
sult ;  the  two  sides  of  the  stock  are  cut  off  in  a  sloping 
direction,  forming  a  wedge,  as  shown  in  figure  86 ;  the 
lower  end  of  the  cion  is  trimmed  out  on  the  inside  so 
that  it  will  fit  upon  the  stock,  as  shown.  Young;  Apple, 
Pear,  and  other  fruit  trees,  when  three  or  four  feet  high, 
are  often  toprgrafted  in  this  manner,  although  what  is 


Fig.  86.— SADDLE 

GRAFTING. 


Fig.  87.— MODIFIED   SADDLE      Fig.  88.— KNIGHT'S 
GRAFTING.  SADDLE  GRAFTING. 


called  a  splice  graft  will  answer  equally  well,  and  can  be 
applied  far  more  expeditiously. 

Sometimes  the  saddle  grafj;  is  so  modified  that  it  is 
intermediate  between  the  cleft  and  the  saddle,  as  shown 
in  figure  87. 

Another  form  of  saddle  grafting,  introduced  by  Mr. 
Thomas  A.  Knight,  of  England,  in  1811,  is  shown  in  fig- 
ure 88.  Of  this  Mr.  Knight  says  that  "  it  is  never  at- 
tempted until  the  usual  season  of  grafting  is  passed,  and 


212  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

the  bark  is  readily  defcached  from  the  alburnum.  The 
head  of  the  stock  is  taken  off  by  a  single  stroke  of  the 
knife  obliquely."  The  cion,  which  should  not  exceed  in 
diameter  half  that  of  the  stock,  is  then  divided  longi- 
tudinally, about  two  inches  upward  from  its  lower  end, 
into  two  unequal  divisions.  The  stronger  division  of  the 
cion  is  then  pared  thin  at  its  lower  extremity,  and  intro- 
duced, as  in  crown  grafting,  between  the  bark  and  wood 
of  the  stock,  and  the  more  slender  division  is  fitted  to  the 
stock  upon  the  opposite  side.  The  cion,  consequently, 
stands  astride  the  stock,  to  which  it  attaches  itself  upon 
each  side,  as  in  the  more  common  mode  of  saddle  graft- 
ing. 

SPLICE  AND  TONGUE  GRAFTING.-- -When  the  stock  and 
cion  are  nearly  of  the  same  size,  splice  grafting — also 
called  tf  wJaip  grafting" — is  the  most  convenient  and  cer- 
tain method  known.  Seedling  stocks  are  most  generally 
used,  and.  of  various  ages,  from  one  to  three  or  more  years 
old,  according  to  their  kind  and  rapidity  of  growth.  The 
stock  is  cut  off  with  an  upward  slope,  making  the  exposed 
wood  perfectly  smooth  ;  a  cion  two  to  four  inches  long  is 
cut  off,  with  the  same  slope  as  the  stock,  and  fittec^  to  it, 
being  careful  to  have  the  wood  and  bark  on  one  side 
exactly  even.  The  Difficulty  in  practising  this,  mode  is 
in  keeping  the  cion  in  position  while  applying  the  liga- 
tures, and  for  this  reason  it  has  been  almost  entirely 
superseded  by 

*  TONGUE  OR  WHIP  GRAFTING,  which  differs  from  the 
ordinary  splice  only  in  one  point,  viz.:  a  small  cleft  or 
split  is  made  in  both  stock  and  cion,  about  midway  on  the 
slope,  forming  a  tongue  on  both  ;  these  are  then  inserted 
one  into  the  other,  which  will  hold  the  cion  in  its  place. 
Figur^  SU  shows  the  operation  as  completed — c,  the  stock; 
£,  the  cion  ;  a,  bud  on  cion — the  union  being  formed  by 
what  is  sometimes  called  a  tongue  splice.  This  mode  of 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING. 


213 


grafting  is  one  of  the  most  expeditious  and  certain  of  any 
in  general  use,  not  only  where  small  seedling  stocks  and 
roots  are  employed,  but  also  for  top- grafting  young  trees 
•  in  the  nursery.  It  may  also  be  used  upon  quite  large 
stocks,  provided  they  have  been  previously  headed  back 
and  have  thrown  oat  thrifty,  branches  upon 
which  the  cions  can  be  conveniently  spliced. 
In  splice"  grafting,  in  the  open  air,  waxed 
cloth  should  be  used  for  ligatures,  to  prevent 
the  breaking  away  of  the  cion  before  it  has 
become  firmly  united ;  but  when  the  grafting 
is  done  inside,  or  upon  pieces  of  roots  which 
will  be  planted  out  in  spring,  strong  waxed 
paper  may  be  used,  or  even  bass,  and  no  wax. 
Sometimes  a  ligature  of  bass  is  used,  and 
then  melted  wax  is  applied  with  a  brush,  to 
cover  the  wounds  on  the  joint  between  cion 
and  stock.  In  some  forms  of  root  grafting 
it  is  desirable  to  place  the  cion  so  low  down 
that  it  will  eventually  take  root  and  become 
capable  of  supplying  itself  with  sustenance 
through  its  own  roots,  instead  of  through 
those  of  the  original  stock.  Under  such 
conditions  only  very  short  pieces  of  roots  are 
employed,  as  they  are  intended  .only  to  serve  ^^FTING. 
a  temporary  purpose,  usually  dying  when  the  cion  has 
produced  roots  for  self-support. 

All  thcTother  modes,  such  as  the  splice,  cleft,  crown, 
side  and  saddle  grafts,  maybe  used  on  roots  as  well  as. on 
the  stems  and  branches  of  woody  plants,  and,  as  a  rule, 
the  larger  and  stronger  the  stock,  the  more  vigorous  will 
be  the  growth  of  the  cion.  But  while  rapid  and  vigorous 
growth  is  usually  desirable,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind 
that  no  cion  can  utilize  more'nntriment  sent  forward  .by, 
the  stock  than  its  leaves  can  assimilate  ;  consequently,  jf 
the  roots  of  a  stock  upon  which  a  cion  is  set  gather  more 


214  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

materials  than  can  be  used,  there  must  ensue  a  forced, 
unhealthy  growth,  or  an  entire  inaction,  in  some  part  of 
the  plant.  When  a  tree  or  shrub  is  severely  headed  back, 
for  grafting  or  other  purposes,  and  thus  deprived  of  its 
usual  amount  of  foliage,  it  will  often  expend  the  greater 
part  of  its  vitality  in  producing  suckers  or  sprouts  from 
the  base  of  its  stem.  No  root  will  remain  dormant  and 
healthy  for  any  considerable  time  under  circumstances 
which  are  naturally  favorable  for  promoting  growth,  and, 
knowing  this,  the  grafter  should, avoid  cutting  off  all  the 
branches  of  a  large  tree  at  one  time,  unless  he  can  substi- 
tute a  sufficient  number  of  cions  to  fill  their  place,  or  at 
least  enough  to  allow  all  the  roots  to  act,  even  if  it  be  but 
slowly.  To  avoid  the  too  severe  checking  of  root  action, 
it  is  better  to  graft  only  a  part  of  the  branches  of  large 
trees  one  season,  leaving  the  remainder  until  the  next. 

A^ENEEE  GRAFTING. — This  mode  of  grafting  is  princi- 
pally employed  in  propagating  woody  plants  under  glass, 
where  both  the  temperature  and  hygrometric  condition 
of  the  atmosphere  can  be  readily  controlled  by  the  propa- 
gator. The  usual  time  for  performing  the  operation  is  in 
summer,  and  soon  after  the  first  and  most  vigorous  growth 
of  the  season  is  completed,  but  before  the  wood  and  leaves 
are  fully  mature.  As  the  leaves  on  both  stock  and  cion 
are  retained,  they  should  notnave  entirely  ceased  to 
assimilate  sap  at  the  time  of  grafting,  but  still  remain 
fresh  and  capable  of  performing  all  of  their  natural  func- 
tions. The  time  for  performing  the  operation  must  neces- 
sarily vary  with  different  kinds,  according  to  the  differ- 
ence in  the  natural  habits  of  the  various  species,  as  some 
make  their  growth  much  Qarli.er  in  the  season  than  others, 
but  the  method  of  grafting  is  the  same  in  all. 

In  this  mode  of  grafting  the^stocks  should  be  grown 
in  pots  for  convenience  in  handling  when  performing  the 
operation,  as  well  as  afterwards,  for  the  union  between 
stock  and  cion  must  be  .secured  before  the  plants  are  re- 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING.  215 

moved  to  the  open  ground,  or  to  outside  frames.  The 
usual  practice  is,  to  place  the  stocks  in  pots,  from  six  to 
twelve  months  before  ,they  are  wanted  for  use,  and  4ihen 
plunge  thems  in  an  open  border  surrounded  with  board 
frames,  where  water  can  be  applied  as  often  as  necessary 
to  ensure  a  vigorous  growth  of  the  stems  and  the  forma- 
tion of  new  roots.  Success  depends  very  much  upon  the 
condition  and  vigor  of  the  -stocks,  and  their  preparation 
for  use  is  of  such  importance  that  it  should  not  be  over- 
looked or  neglected.  Seedling  stocks  are  principally  used, 
and  of  various  ages,  according  to  the  kind  and  natural 
growth,  but  those  of  from  six  to  twenty-four  inches  high 
vvilTusually  be  as  large  as  necessary.  If  the  seedlings  have 
long  tap-ropt-Sj  these  may  be  cut  away,  and  even  the  lateral 
roots  may  be  shortened,  if  necessary,  to  admit  all  into 
.pots  of  convenient  size.  The  .tops  may  also  be  headed 
back  at  the  time  of  placing  the  stocks  in  pots ;  in  fact, 
more  or  less  pruning  will  usually  be  necessary,  in  order 
to  secure  neat,  trim-looking  stocks.  The  new  growth 
which  they  will  make  in  the  pots  before  they  are  wanted 
for  use  may  require  slight  attention,  in  order  to  secure  a 
smooth,  clean  surface  on  the  stem  at  the  point  whererthe 
cion  is  to  be  placed. 

WI\en  ready  for  grafting,  the  stocks  are  lifted  from  the 
border  and  carried  indoors,  and  the  cions  cat  from  the 
parent  plants  as  required,  and  kept  in  as  fresh  condition 
as  possible,  not  being  allowed  to  wilt  or  shrivel  in  the 
least.  The  stock  should  not  be  headed  back  or  severely 
pruned  at  the  time  of  grafting,  although^  a  side  branch, 
or  more  than  one,  may  be  removed  if  necessary  in  prepar- 
ing a  place  for  the  cion. 

In  affixing  the  cion  the  operator  selects  a  smooth  place 
on  one  side  of  the  stock,  then  with  a  sha^p  knife  he 
makes  a  light  cross-cut  through  the  bark  and  to  a  slight 
depth  into  the  wood  underneath,  then  inserts  the  blade 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches  above, 


216  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

ting  ofE  a  thin  slice  or  veneer  of  the  wood  and  bark  down 
to.  the  cross-cujt.  m  me  stoc£.  ^TsimII^jlic53jthencjit 
from  the  ciou,  as  shown  in  figure. 9.0.  The  exposed  al- 
burnum^ of  the  cion  is  placed  against  .that  on  the  stock, 
and  the  whole  wqund  firmly  bound  with  a  ligature  of 
bass,  as  in  budding  or  splice  grafting.  No  wax  is  used, 
neither  is  there  a  tongue  made  on  either  cion  or  stock, 
but  merely  a  clean,  smooth  wound,  as  shown  in  figure  90. 

As  soon  as  the  cion  has  been  inserted,  the  stock  should 
be  removed  to  the  inside  frames  of  the  propagating  house 
and  gently  watered  overhead.  The  bottom  of  the  frames 
should  be  either  covered  with  sand  or  moss — the  latter  is 
preferable,  as  it  holds  moisture  better  and  gives  it  off 
slowly,  keeping  the  air  within  the  frames  well  filled  with 
vapor.  If  the  frames  are  not  deep  enough  to  admit  the 
grafted  plants  when  set  upright,  the  pots  may  be  tilted 
over  to  one  side,  and  a  good  depth  of  sand  or  moss  in  the 
bottom  will  aid  greatly  in  keeping  them  in  this  position. 

The  house  in  which  plants  are  veneer  grafted  in  sum- 
mer should  be  well  shaded,  either  with  lath  screens  or 
whitewash  on  the  glass,  and  in  very  clear  weather  it  will 
frequently  be  necessary  to  add  extra  shading  to  the  inside 
frames,  especially  if  filled  with  recently  grafted  plants  of 
broad-leaved  kinds,  like  the  Maples,  Magnolias  and  Dog- 
woods. In  this  climate,  artificial  heat  will  seldom  be 
required ;  still,  it  is  well  to  have  the  furnaces  in  order, 
as  cold  storms  occasionally  occur,  and  a  little  fire  heat 
may  be  needed  to  allow  of  rather  more  ventilation  than 
could  otherwise  be  given  with  safety.  During  the  first 
iew  days,  or  for  the  first  week  .after  the  cions  are  set,  the 
plants  should  be  kept  in  a  pretty  close,  warm  and  moist 
atmosphere,  for  the  object  at  this  time  is  to  excite  growth 
in  the  stock,  or  at  least  to  accelerate  the  flow  of  sap,  in 
order  to  produce  rapid  granulation  of  the  wounds  on  both 
stock  and  cion,  and  thereby  increase  the  chances  of  a 
union  of  the  two. 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING.  217 


Fig.  90.— yjga  E 


218  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Within  a  week  after  the  cions  are  set,  the  failures,  if 
any,  may  be  seen,  as  the  leaves  will  drop  from  the  cions 
if  there  is  no  communication  between  them  and  the 
stocks.  At  the  end  of  two  weeks,  or  a  little  more,  the 
cions  will  be  united,  if  at  all,  and  a  very  reliable  indica- 
tion of  this  is  a  new  growth  on  the  cions.  The  plants 
may  then  be  removed  from  the  house,  if  necessary,  and 
the  pots  plunged  in  frames  in  the  open  ground,  and  given 
shade  and  plenty  of  moisture.  But  where  the  propaga- 
tor has  abundant  house  room,  it  is  best  to  keep  the  plants 
inside  for  a  month  or  more,  and  by  proper  ventilation 
somewhat  harden  the  new  growth  Before  removing  to  the 
outside  frames.  If  the  stocks  have  a  good  ball  of  roots 
they  may  be  slipped  out  of  the  pots  when  transplanted  to 
the  outside  frames. 

This  mode  of  inside  veneer  grafting  is  not  only  one  of 
the  most  expeditious  and  certain  methods  of  propagating 
nearly  all  kinds  of  deciduous  and  evergreen  trees  and 
sjirubs,  but  it  is  performed  at  a  season  when  the  expert 
grafter  has  the  most  leisure,  if  it  can  be  said  that  such  a 
time  ever  falls  to  his  lot ;  and  by  having  his  stocks  of 
various  kinds  growing  in  pots,  he  can  graft  them  at  his 
pleasure,  in  foul  or  fair  weather,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
eminently  successful  in  propagating  many  species  of  trees 
that  are  always  uncertain,  and  seldom  or  never  success- 
fully grafted  in  the  open  air — at  least  not  in  cold  climates. 

Another  advantage  of  grafting  in  summer  is  that  in 
taking  the  cions,  the  propagator  can  select  those  which 
will  best  perpetuate  any  special  characteristic — like  the 
variegation  of  leaves  in  deciduous  trees,  which  become 
obliterated  later  in  the  season.  This  is  a  very  important 
matter,  for,  as  is  well  known,  the  best  marked  of  the 
variegated,  laciniate  and  colored  leaved  trees,  are  inclined 
to  revert  to  the  original  forms,  and  it  is  only  by  proper 
and  timely  selections  of  wood  for  propagation  that  these 
abnormal  forms  are  fixed  and  perpetuated.  By  repeated 


PROPAGATION    BY   GRAFTING. 

selections  of  the  best  forms  and  most  distinctly  marked, 
these  peculiar  characteristics — which  in  a  majority  of  in- 
stances give  to  the  plants  their  special  value — become 
intensified. 

In  the  alter  treatment  of  the  veneer-grafted  plants, 
much  will  depend  upon  the  climate  where  they  are  grown. 
If  the  winters  are  severe,  they  may  need  protection  under 
glazed  sashes,  board  shutters,  or  lath  screens,  with  plenty 
of  hay  or  some  similar  material  filled  in  around  the  plants 
to  prevent  injury  from  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  or 
low  temperature.  The  propagator  must  necessarily  be 
the  best  judge  of  the  amount  of  protection  required,  if 
any  is  needed. 

The  stock  above  the  cion  should  not  be  removed  until 
the  following  season,  and  in  some  of  the  very  slow  grow- 
ing kinds  it  may  be  well  to  leave  it  intact  until  late  in 
the  summer  or  autumn. 

BOTTLE  GRAFTING. — While  the  mode  of  xeneerjjTaft? 
ing  described  is  undoubtedly  the  best,,  and  most  reajfly 
and  rapidly  performed,  others  are  sometimes  employed  ; 
probably  more  To  show  how  many  different  ways  there 
are  of  obtaining  similar  or  the  same  results,  than  for 
their  practical  utility:  What  is  called  "  bottle  grafting" 
is  one  of  these  variations  from  the  more  general  method 
of  veneer  grafting,  In  this,  the  lower  end  of  the  cion, 
instead  of  being  fitted  to  the  stock,  is  placed  in  a  bottle 
filled  with  water,  as  shown  in  figure  91.  The  upper  part 
is  fitted  to  the  stock  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  former 
mode. 

Another  and  rather  more  complicated  form  of  bottle 
grafting  is  shown  in  figure  92.  A  E,  the  stock  ;  B,  the 
cion  ;  D,  ligature  ;  II H.  branches  and  leaves  of  the  head 
of  the  cion  ;  F,  bottle  filled  with  water,  and  G,  stake  to 
which  the  bottle  is  tied.  This  latter  form  may  answer 
for  amateurs  who  may  wish  to  graft  an  Orange,  Lemon, 
Oleander  or  similar  specimen  plants,  but  the  professional 


220 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


gardener  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  resort  to  such  com- 
plicated and  time-consuniing  methods. 

SIDE  GRAFT  WITH  VERTICAL  CLE.FT. — There  are  prop- 
agators who  prefer  this  method  to  the  veneer  graft,  and 
it  is  usually  performed  under  the  same  conditions.  The 
cleft  in  the  stock  is  made  sloping  downward  and  inward 
towards  the  center  of  the  stock,  cutting  nearly  or  quite 
through  the  alburnum.  The  cion  is  made  in  the  form  of 


H 


BOTTLE   GKAFTTNG. 


BOTTLE  GRAFTING,   MODIFIED. 


a  thin  wedge  and  thrust  into  the  cleft  and  held  in  place 
with  the  ligature  of  bass.  This  form  of  side  graft  is 
usually  employed  in  what  is  called  herbaceous  grafting, 
as  used  in  grafting  Melons,  Squashes,  Dahlias,  Potatoes, 
Tomatoes,  etc.  The  cion,  when  grafting  such  succulent 
plants,  is  not  pared  down  so  thin  as  with  woody  plants, 
but  left  more  in  the  form  shown  in  figure  93 — A,  stock ; 


PROPAGATION   BY   GRAFTING. 


B,  cleft  in  same ;  D,  cion  ;  E,  leaf  on  cion  ;  F  F,  leaves 
on  stock.  In  grafting  herbaceous  plants  and  vines  in  the 
open  air,  heavy  shading  and  frequent  applications  of  water: 
to  the  foliage  are  usually  required  to  ensure  success. 

GRAKCi^G^^Y^^PRpACH. — This  method  is  practised 
both  in  the  open  air  and  under  glass,  as  all  that  is  re- 
quired is  to  have  the^stocj^._and  thejpjant^that  is  to  fur- 
nish the,  cion  in  sufficient  close  proximity  to  admit  of  the 
branches  being  brought  together.  A  thin  slice  of  bark 
and  alburnum,  two  or  more  inches-  long,  is  removed  from 
each,  and  the  exposed 
wounds  brought  together 
and  held  firmly  in  place 
with  a  ligature  of  waxed 
cloth  or  bass  ;  but  if  the 
latter  is  employed,  it 
should  be  covered  with 
wax  if  in  the  open  air. 

Ij^ARCHpJG. — This 

method  JcH3ffers  from  the 
last  only  in  the  manner  of 
manipulation.  To  graft 
trees  by  inarching  or  ap- 
proach, they  must  neces- 
sarily stand  so  near  to- 
gether that  their  stems  or  branches  can  be  united  with 
out  separation  from  the  parent  stock.  Incisions  are  us- 
ually made  similar  to  those  employed  in  tongue  grafting. 
The  branches  of  different  trees  or  of  the  same  tree  may 
be  inarched,  and  in  this  manner  hedges  and  live  fences 
and  screens  may  be  formed  with  fruit  or  ornamental  trees 
and  shrubs.  Inarching  is  sometimes  employed  in  propa- 
gating rare  species,  instead  of  grafting  in  the  ordinary 
methods  ;  and  alter  the  union,  has  been  formed,  the  in- 
arched branch  is  separated  from  the  parent  stem.  In 
former  times  this  method  of  propagating  trees  that  were 


Fig.   93.  — SIDE  GRAFTING. 


222  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

supposed  to  be  difficult  to  graft  in  other  ways,  was  very 
extensively  employed  by  nurserymen.  Seedling  stocks 
were  planted  around  a  large  or  medium-sized  tree,  and 
near  enough  to  allow  the  branches  to  conveniently  reach 
the  stock  when  ready  for  use,  at  which  time  they  were 
inarched,  afterwards  severed,  and  the  stocks  taken  up 
and  removed  to  the  nursery  rows.  The  tinje  for  inarch- 
ing trees  in  the  open  air,  is  in  spring,  at  the  usual  season 
for  grafting,  but  if  grown  under  glass,  the  operation  may 
be  performed  whenever  the  plants  are  growing  or  are 
about  to  commence  growth. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
SELECTING   STOCKS. 

In  the  propagation  of  plants  by  budding  and  grafting, 
the  selection  of  the  proper  kind  of  stock  is  quite  as  im- 
portant as  knowing  how  to  utilize  it  afterwards.  The 
most  skilled  propagator  cannot  produce  the  best  nor  even 
satisfactory  results  with  poor  stocks  and  cions.  A  feeble 
cion  may  revive  and  make  a  fair  or  even  first-rate  plant  if 
set  in  a^und^aji^ vigorous  sto£k,  but  if  the  stock  is  poor, 
the  result  Is  usually  unsatisfactory,  for  in  this  case  we 
build  upon  a  feeble  and  unstable  foundation. 

It  is  not  only  desirable  to  secure  stocks  of  closely  allied 
species,  but  those  that  are  young,  vigorous,  and  well  sup- 
plied with  fibrous  roots,  for  it  is  the  small  roots  that  first 
imbibe  nutriment  from  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  first  to 
emit  additional  fibres  to  assist  in  increasing  the  supply. 

As  a  rule,  seedling  stocks  are  preferred  to  those  raised 
from  cuttings,  although  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  and 
the  "  wilding,"  as  it  is  termed,  is  usually  the  most  hardy 
and  least  subject  to  disease.  The  so-called  improved, 


SELECTING  STOCKS.  223 

domesticated  and  long-cultivated  plant  has  also  been  long- 
est exposed  to  diseases  which  often  originate  under  forced 
and  unnatural  conditions. 

klj^ising  all  kinds  of  tree  and  shrub  stocks  from  seed, 
a  moderately  light,  porous  soil  is  preferable  to  one  of  an 
opposite  character,  as  light  soils  tend  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  fibrous  roots.  In  heavy,  compact  soils,  seedlings 
may  produce  longer  vertical  or  tap-roots  and  taller  stems, 
or  we  may  say  that  they  will  grow  larger  in  a  given  time 
than  in  lighter  and  naturally  poorer  soils,  but  they  will 
usually  produce  a  far  less  number  of  fibrous  roo^;_con- 
sequently;  less  valuable  for  transplanting.  The  taller  the 
stem  and  longer  the  tap-root,  the  greater  the  amount  of 
each  will  have  to  be  cut  away  when  they  are , transplanted. 
The  best  stocks,  therefore,  for  all  purposes,  are  those  that 
will  lose  the  least  when  prepared  for  re-planting  in  nursery 
rows  or  for  potting.  The  raiser  should  seek  great  diam- 
eter of  stem,  and  number  of  rootlets  rather  than  length  at 
the  ^sacrifice  of  ^breadth.  Thick  seeding  tends  to  lessen 
diameter  and  increase  length,  and  while  a  greater  num- 
ber of  plants  may  be  produced  on  a  given  space  by  crowd- 
ing, it  is  always  at  the  expense  of  quality ;  consequently, 
height  of  ..stocks  is  not  a  sa^e  guide  for  determining  their 
vigor  or  value,  either  in  seedling  stocks  or  older  trees. 

There  are  certain  kinds  of  trees,  like  the  Oaks,  Chest- 
nut, Hickories,  and  English  Walnut,  which  produce 
rather  long,  sturdy  vertical  roots  the  first  season,  and 
these  poorly  furnished  with  fibres,  especially  if  raised  on  a 
firm,  hard  soil ;  butaf. the  nuts  are  planted  in  light  vege- 
table mold  or  sand,  their  roots  will  be  mainly  fibrous, 
with  only^a  small  central  or  tap-root,  or  none  at  all. 
Nurserymen  who  make  a  specialty  of  raising  such  stocks 
for  grafting  in  pots,  sow  the  nuts  in  shallow  pots  or  boxes, 
and  in  nearly  pure  sand,  applying  liquid  manure  as 
needed,  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth. 


224  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

STOCKS      FOR      FEUIT      TREES. 

The  stocks  principally  employed  in  propagating  fruit 
trees  of  temperate  and  semi-tropical  climates  are  as 
follows  : 

THE  ALMOND. — Seedling  Peach  or  Plum  stocks  are 
preferred.  Seedlings  of  the  hard-shelled  Almond  will 
answer  equally  as  well  as  the  Peach.  The  Plum  makes  the 
best  stock  for  trees  to  be  cultivated  on  moist  or  clay  soils, 
and  it  is  also  less  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  dis- 
eases, but  does  not  grow  so  large,  and  there  is  danger  of 
the  Almond  overgrowing  and  dying  through  what  may 
be  termed  strangulation,  unless  very  large-growing  varie- 
ties and  species  of  the  Plum  are  employed  as  stocks. 

APPLE. — Seedling  stocks  are  always  preferred  for  gen- 
.eral  use  for  orchards,  and  those  raised  from  ungrafted  or 
wildings  of  the  European  species  (Pirus  Malus)  are  best. 
Stocks  for  the  different  varieties  of  the  Siberian  Crab 
Apples  (P.  prunifolia),  may  be  of  the  same  species,  or 
seedlings  of  the  wild  American  Crab  Apple  (P.  coronaria 
and  P.  angustifolia),  but  those  of  the  common  European 
Apple  are  most  extensively  employed  for  all  the  culti- 
vated species. 

For  dwarfing  the  Apple  where  low  bushes  or  espalier 
training  is  desired,  the  Doucin  and  Paradise  stocks  are 
employed,  these  being  low-growing  varieties  of  the  Pirus 
Malus.  These  stocks  are  raised  by  cuttings,  or  by  bank- 
ing up  around  the  sprouts,  which  spring  up  around  the 
base  of  large  stems  of  plants  which  have  been  previously 
headed  back  for  the  purpose  of  producing  them. 

APRICOT. — Seedling  Plum  stocks,  or  those  raised  from 
cuttings,  are  usually  employed  in  propagating  the  im- 
proved varieties  of  the  Apricot.  In  mild  climates  both 
Apricot  and  Peach  seedlings  are  sometimes  used. 

CHERRY  (Oerasus). — For  large,  standard  trees,  seed- 
ling stocks  of  the  wild  Mazzard  Cherry  of  Europe  (Cera- 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  225 

sus  avium),  are  the  best.  In  cold  climates  they  should  be 
worked  low  down  near  the  crown.  What  are  called  the 
Morello,  Duke  and  Kentish  varieties  of  the  Cherry  are 
supposed  to  have  originated  from  a  wild  species  in 
Europe,  known  as  Cerasus  caproniana,  and  as  a  class  they 
are  considered  more  hardy  than  those  that  are  descended 
from  the  0.  avium.  Seedlings  of  each  group  may  be  em- 
ployed as  stocks  for  their  varieties,  but  the  Mazzard  is 
the  largest  and  most  free-growing  tree,  and  for  this  rea- 
son is  usually  preferred  as  a  stock  for  all.  The  Mahaleb 
or  St.  Lucie  Cherry  (C.  Malialeb],  is  alow-growing,  slen- 
der-branched species,  which  is  extensively  employed  in 
France  as  a  stock  for  dwarfing  the  taller-growing  varie- 
ties of  other  species.  It  has  also  been  employed — but 
less  extensively — for  the  same  purpose  in  this  country, 
but  it  should  never  be  used  for  what  are  termed  standard 
trees,  or  trees  with  long  stems,  for  if  trained  high,  the 
leading  branches  soon  become  diseased,  die  back,  and  if 
the  tree  does  not  perish  altogether,  it  will  assume  the  low 
dwarf  form  of  the  stock.  Buds  of  the  different  varieties 
of  the  cultivated  Cherry  take  very  readily  on  Mahaleb 
stocks,  and  usually  make  a  most  vigorous  growth  for  the 
first  year  or  two.  This  apparent  vigor  of  the  young  plant 
has  often  misled  the  inexperienced  to  believe  that  it  would 
continue  in  after  years  if  the  tree  is  primed  up  as  a 
standard,  but  the  chances  are  ten  to  one  against  securing 
such  results. 

Among  the  Cherries  proper,  or  Cerasus,  there  are  two 
very  distinct  groups  of  species  which  do  not  appear  to 
have  the  least  affinity,  either  in  their  flowers  or  wood ; 
consequently,  no  hybridizing,  so  far  as  known,  has  ever 
occurred  between  the  species  of  the  two  groups,  nor  have 
the  plants  of  one  been  used  as  stocks  for  the  other. 
These  two  groups  are  readily  distinguished  by  their 
flowers  ;  for  in  one  they  are  produced  in  sessile  umbels, 
as  seen  in  the  common  garden  Cherries  from  Europe, 


226  PHOPAGATJON   OF   PLANTS. 

also  in  our  Wild  Red  Cherry  (0.  Pennsylvanicum),  and 
the  Dwarf  Cherry  (C.  pumila).  The  flowers  in  the  other 
group  are  in  long  slender  racemes,  as  in  the  American 
Wild  Black  Cherry  (C.  serotina),  Choke  Cherry  (a  Vir- 
ginana),  Bird  Cherry  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions 
(C.  demissa),  and  the  small  Bird  Cherry  of  Europe 
(C.  Padus). 

The  Chinese  and  Japan  Cherries  belong  to  the  first 
section,  and  seedlings  of  the  different  species  may  be  in- 
terchanged in  'their  propagation  whenever  desirable. 

CITRON,  LIME,  LEMON,  ORANGE,  SHADDOCK,  ETC.— 
As  all  of  these  fruits  are  but  different  and  closely  allied 
species  of  one  genus,  their  wood  readily  unites  by  either 
budding  or  grafting.  But,  as  with  other  fruits,  the 
largest  and  most  vigorous  species  and  varieties  are  pre- 
ferred for  stocks  if  large  trees  are  desired,  and  the  reverse 
for  dwarfs  ;  and  as  with  the  Apple  and  Pear,  seeds  from 
the  Wild  Orange  produce  better  stocks  than  those  from 
the  improved  on  which  to  graft,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Lemon  and  other  species  of  the  Citrus  Family. 
The  Shaddock  (Citrus  decumana),  is  a  rather  strong  and 
large  growing  tree,  and  it  will  readily  take  buds  from 
the  Orange,  Lemon  and  other  species  of  the  genus.  For 
making  dwarf  trees  of  the  Orange,  the  Limonia  trifoliata 
is  by  some  propagators  considered  a  better  stock  than  the 
Otaheite  Orange,  which  has  long  been  used  for  this 
purpose. 

CORNEL  TREE. — Seedlings  of  the  common  Oornus  Mas 
are  used  principally  as  stocks  for  the  different  varieties  of 
the  Cornel,  or  edible-fruited  Dogwoods.  But  the  Cornels 
are  so  rarely  cultivated  in  this  country,  that  experiments 
are  wanting  for  determining  the  value  of  the  different 
species  for  stocks  on  which  to  grow  the  edible  fruited 
varieties,  but  it  is  quite  probable  that  Oornus  florida 
would  answer  equally  as  well  as  or  better  than  C.  Mas. 

CURRANT. — Although  not  a  tree,  the  Currant  is  some- 


SELECTING  STOCKS.  22? 

times  cultivated  as  standards  and  in  the  form  of  small 
trees.  To  secure  this  form  they  are  grafted  upon  some 
strong  growing  species,  like  the  Missouri  Currant  (Ribes 
aureum),  which  appears  to  answer  the  purpose  as  well  as 
any  that  has  thus  far  been  tested. 

DATE  PLUM. — See  Persimmon. 

FIG. — The  Fig  is  rarely  propagated  by  grafting,  as  it 
grows  very  readily  from  cuttings  ;  but  weak  and  feeble 
varieties  may  be  grafted  upon  the  strong  and  vigorous. 

GOOSEBERRY. — Like  the  Currant,  this  shrub  is  some- 
times trained  in  the  tree  form,  and  the  low  growing 
varieties  grafted  upon  the  tall  and  most  vigorous.  Stocks 
raised  either  from  seed  or  cuttings  of  the  wild  North 
American  species  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  The 
Round-leaved  Gooseberry  of  the  Western  States  (Ribes 
rotundifolium),  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  tallest  grow- 
ing of  the  indigenous  species,  consequently  one  of  the 
best  for  stocks. 

MEDLAR. — Strong  growing  species  of  the  Hawthorn 
are  preferred  for  stocks,  but  seedling  Medlars,  or  even 
the  Quince,  may  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

MULBERRY. — Seedlings  of  the  common  White  Mul- 
berry (Morus  alba),  are  usually  employed  as  stocks  upon 
which  to  graft  the  Downing  and  other  improved  varieties. 

NECTARINE. — As  the  Nectarine  is  only  a  smooth- 
skinned  Peach,  the  same  kinds  of  stocks  and  treatment 
are  recommended  for  both.  (See  Peach.) 

OLIVE. — In  Southern  Europe  wild  seedling  Olives  are 
often  used  as  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  the  cultivated 
varieties  as  a  means  of  hastening  maturity.  Grafting 
the  Olive  is  not,  however,  a  very  general  mode  of  propa- 
gation, as  all  the  varieties  are  easily  propagated  by  cut- 
tings of  the  old  as  well  as  young  wood. 

PAPAW  (Asimina). — Seedlings  of  the  common  Papaw 
(A.  triloba],  may  be  employed  as  stocks  for  the  smaller 


228  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

growing  species,  or  for  the  multiplication  of  distinct 
varieties  ;  but  of  the  latter,  few  or  none  have  as  yet  been 
discovered  worthy  of  a  place  among  choice  garden  and 
orchard  fruits. 

PEACH. — Seedling  Peach  stocks  are  principally  em- 
ployed in  propagating  the  improved  varieties.  The  best 
stocks  are  raised  from  what  may  be  considered  the  in- 
ferior varieties,  or,  as  usually  termed,  "  wilding,"  that  are 
on  their  own  roots,  not  having  been  budded  or  grafted. 
Of  late  years,  in  this  country,  some  care  has  been  neces- 
sary in  selecting  seed  in  order  to  obtain  it  from  trees  that 
were  free  from  a  common  disease  of  the  Peach  known  as 
"yellows."  Seedlings  of  one  season's  growth  are  pre- 
ferred to  older  ones,  and  if  the  Peach  stones  are  planted 
in  moderately  rich  soil  in  spring,  they  will  usually  produce 
stocks  strong  enough  to  receive  a  bud  by  the  ensuing 
August  or  September.  If  the  bud  "  takes,"  the  stocks* 
may  be  headed  back  the  following  spring  to  within  four 
inches  of  the  inserted  bud,  and  later  in  the  season  cut 
down  close  to  the  base  of  the  young  shoot  produced  from 
the  bud.  In  planting  the  Peach  stone  or  seed,  they 
should  be  dropped  about  one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  or  at 
a  sufficient  distance  apart  to  admit  of  budding  at  the 
proper  time. 

Plum  stocks  are  also  employed  for  the  Peach,  especially 
in  Europe,  where  the  trees  are  trained  to  walls  and  kept 
low  in  the  form  of  dwarfs,  or  cultivated  in  peach-houses 
under  glass.  The  Plum  is  naturally  a  slower  growing 
and  a  smaller  tree  than  the  Peach,  hence  its  influence  as  a 
stock  is  to  dwarf  the  growth.  The  Plum  stock  is  no 
doubt  preferable  where  the  trees  are  to  be  trained  low,  or 
planted  in  stiff,  cold,  or  clayey  soils  ;  but  where  the  Peach 
thrives  as  an  orchard  tree,  as  it  does  in  the  light,  warm 
soils  of  our  best  peach-growing  districts,  the  natural  stock 
is  no  doubt  the  best,  although  not  quite  so  hardy  or  free 
from  insect  enemies  as  the  Plum. 


SELECTING    STOCKS.  229 

PEAK. — Seedlings  of  wild  or  inferior  varieties  are  pre- 
ferred to  any  other  as  a  stock  for  the  Pear.  Most  of  the 
seed  used  in  this  country  is  imported  from  Europe,  where 
it  is  saved  from  the  pomace  after  expressing  the  juice  of 
Pears  for  making  perry.  In  raising  seedlings  in  this 
country,  great  care  is  required  in  their  cultivation  to  pre- 
vent blight  on  the  leaves  during  the  first  season.  Fresh, 
new,  or  virgin  soil  is  best  for  a  seed-bed,  and  it  should  be 
worked  very  deep  in  order  to  insure  an  equable  amount 
of  moisture  during  the  entire  summer.  While  seedlings 
of  the  Wild  Pear  of  Europe  have  long  been  considered  as 
the  best  stocks  for  standard  trees,  it  is  quite  probable 
that  the  oriental  species  (Pirus  Sinensis),  and  some  of  its 
varieties,  found  in  both  China  and  Japan,  will  eventually 
prove  to  be  superior  to  the  European  species  as  a  stock 
upon  which  to  work  the  improved  and  long-cultivated 
varieties.  These  oriental  species  and  varieties  appear  to 
possess  a  vigor  surpassing  that  of  any  of  those  of  Euro- 
pean origin,  as  seen  in  their  large,  thick,  leathery  leaves, 
as  well  as  in  the  great  rapidity  of  growth  and  sturdy 
character  of  their  young  shoots.  They  certainly  give 
promise  of  value  as  stocks  upon  which  to  work  the  less 
sturdy-growing  varieties. 

The  Quince  has  long  been  used  as  a  stock  for  the  Pear, 
especially  for  producing  low-growing  or  dwarf  trees, 
which  are  desired  for  small  gardens,  or  for  training  in 
some  other  form  than  as  standard  trees.  While  some 
varieties  of  the  Pear  succeed  admirably  when  grown 
on  Quince  stocks,  others  soon  fail  for  the  want  of  a 
proper  affinity  between  the  wood  of  two  species  of 
trees  which  we  force  to  unite  temporarily,  or  otherwise, 
by  budding  or  grafting. 

By  adopting  a  method  known  as  "  double  working," 
we  may  use  Quince  stocks  for  varieties^that  do  not  succeed 
when  worked  directly  upon  it.  In  double  working, 
varieties  are  selected  that  are  known  to  unite  readily  and 


230  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

grow  thriftily  upon  the  Quince,  and  buds  of  these  are 
inserted  in  the  usual  way,  and  near  the  ground.  The 
next  season,  after  the  shoots  from  the  buds  have  nearly 
completed  their  growth  of  the  season,  buds  of  the  feeble- 
growing  varieties,  or  those  which  appear  to  have  very 
little  affinity  for  the  Quince  stock,  are  inserted  in  the 
young  growth  of  the  Pear  wood  six  to  twelve  inches  above 
its  junction  with  the  Quince.  The  stock  is  then  treated 
as  it  was  the  year  previous,  and  the  following  spring  the 
stock  cut  back  to  within  four  to  six  inches  of  the  bud  in- 
serted in  the  Pear  wood.  This  small  section  or  piece  of 
wood  of  a  vigorous-growing  variety,  uniting  with  the 
Quince  stock  below,  and  supporting  another  abo^e,  will 
have  a  very  great  irriluence  in  the  future  growth  of  the 
tree.  Doubled  worked  trees  cost  twice  as  much  to  raise 
as  single  worked,  but  they  are  worth  the  difference  to 
any  one  who  desires  dwarf  Bartlett,  Seckle,  and  similar 
varieties,  which  do  not  usually  succeed  when  grown 
directly  on  Quince  stocks.  Doubled  worked  trees,  how- 
ever, should  never  be  trained  as  standards,  as  the  Quince 
has  a  rather  feeble  root  system,  producing  few  large 
lateral  roots  ;  consequently,  if  the  top  is  trained  high  the 
tree  is  likely  to  be  blown  over,  ani  all  of  the  roots  thrown 
out. 

The  White  Thorn  (Cratcegus  coccinea),  may  also  be 
employed  as  a  stock  for  the  Pear,  and  in  moist,  heavy 
soils  it  is  fully  equal,  it  not  superior,  to  the  Quince.  There 
are  several  native  species  of  the  Thorn,  some  much 
stronger  growers  than  others;  the  largest  and  most  vigor- 
ous species  should  be  selected,  if  to  be  employed  as  stocks 
for  the  Pear,  or  even  for  propagating  the  ornamental 
varieties  of  the  European  Hawthorn. 

The  common  Juneberry  or  Shadbush  (Amelancliier), 
and  the  Mountain  Ash  (Pirus  Americana  and  P.  Aucu- 
parid),  may  be  employed  as  stocks  for  the  Pear,  but  are 
usually  considered  inferior  to  the  Pear  and  Quince.  The 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  231 

common  Apple  may  also  be  used  as  a  stock  for  the  Pear, 
but  the  union  between  the  wood  of  the  two  trees  is  very 
imperfect,  and  seldom  of  long  duration. 

PERSIMMON  (Diospyros). — The  Date  Plum  of  Europe, 
and  the  many  cultivated  varieties  of  the  Kaki,  or  Japan 
Persimmon  (D.  Kaki),  when  grown  on  the  American 
Persimmon,  thrive  equally  as  well,  if  not  better,  than  on 
any  other  stock.  The  American  Persimmon  is  not  only 
the  largest,  but  most  hardy  tree  of  the  genus,  conse- 
quently preferable  as  a  stock  for  the  less  robust  species 
and  varieties.  The  seedlings  grow  rapidly,  and  often  reach 
a  size  large  enough  for  budding  the  first  season.  If  not 
used  at  this  time,  they  may  beheaded  back  the  following 
spring  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth  -of  young  wood,  into 
which  buds  may  be  inserted  later  in  the  season. 

PLUM  (Prunus). — Seedlings  of  the  hardiest  and  most 
vigorous  growing  varieties  of  the  European  Plum  are 
usually  preferred  by  nurserymen  for  stocks,  but  the  larger 
growing  species  of  the  native  Plum  answer  the  purpose 
well,  if  budded  low,  or  the  cions  are  splice  grafted  on  the 
roots,  and  then  planted  so  deep  that  the  point  of  junc- 
tion is  covered.  The  Myrobalan  Plum  is  a  favorite 
among  the  French  nurserymen  and  orchardists,  as  it  is 
said  not  to  produce  suckers,  or,  at  least,  very  sparingly, 
and  it  is  readily  propagated  by  cuttings.  There  are 
several  other  species  or  varieties  of  the  Plum  that  may 
be  readily  propagated  by  cuttings,  layers,  mound  layers 
made  by  banking  of  the  sprouts  or  old  stools,  and  by 
cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  latter  mode  is  objectionable, 
as  stocks  produced  in  this  way  are  very  likely  to  produce 
suckers  far  more  freely  than  will  be  desirable  as  the  trees 
become  old.  Varieties  of  the  Plum,  known  as  the  Black 
Damas  and  St.  Julien,  are  also  largely  used  as  stocks  by 
the  French  nurserymen,  and  are  also  imported  by  those 
of  this  country.  These,  with  the  Myrobalan,  are  among 
the  best,  if  not  the  very  best,  of  the  European  varieties 


232  PPOPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

for  stocks  upon  which  to  work  the  various  cultivated 
sorts  of  the  Plum,  Apricot,  and,  I  may  add,  the  Peach, 
whenever  it  is  desirable  to  raise  the  latter  on  any  other 
than  its  own.  stock. 

Our  indigenous  species  of  the  Plum,  especially  the 
Primus  Americana  and  P.  C/iicasa,  are  the  best  stocks 
on  which  to  groAV  all  the  varieties  originating  from  the 
same,  but  the  more  rapid  and  stronger- growing  European 
varities  soon  overgrow  the  American  stocks,  unless 
worked  very  low  down,  or  directly  on  the  roots. 

The  Peach  is  often  employed  as  a  stock  for  the  Plum, 
and  in  mild  climates,  and  where  the  trees  are  planted 
on  rather  light  soils,  it  answers  the  purpose  moderately 
well ;  but  it  is  not  recommended  for  general  use,  and  in 
cold  climates,  or  where  the  Peach  is  subject  to  diseases 
and  attacks  of  insects,  it  is  useless  as  a  stock  for  the  Plum. 

PoM~EGR&NA.TE(PunicaGranatum). — The  Pomegranate 
is  usually  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  and  layers,  but  it 
may  be  grafted ;  the  Sweet-fruited,  Violet,  and  other 
varieties  being  worked  on  the  stocks  of  the  Wild  Pome- 
granate, or  one  variety  may  be  employed  as  a  stock  for  any 
other,  whenever  such  mode  of  propagation  is  desirable. 

QUINCE  (Pirus,  Cydonia  of  some). — Strong  kinds, 
like  the  Angers  and  Fontenay,  are  used  as  stocks  for 
the  improved  varieties  cultivated  for  their  fruit.  Also 
for.  the  ornamental,  like  the  Japan  Quince,  or  Pirus 
Japonica,  of  nurserymen's  catalogues,  and  the  large 
Chinese  Quince  (Pirus  CJdnensis).  Some  European 
authorities  recommend  the  Portugal  Quince  (P.  Lusi- 
tanica),  as  a  stock  not  only  for  the  Pear,  but  for  other 
varities  of  the  Quince,  as  it  is  a  very  vigorous  grower. 

TREE  AND   SHRUB  STOCKS. 

In  making  a  list  of  the  stocks  usually  employed  in  the 
propagation  of  ligneous  plants,  I  shall  not  attempt  to 
include  in  it  every  species  and  variety  that  has  been, 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  233 

or  may  be  under  certain  circumstances,  employed  for 
such  purposes,  but  merely  refer  to  the  best  likely  to  be 
available.  In  some  families,  a  single  species  may  answer, 
or  have  been  proved  to  be  the  best  stock  for  all  the  species 
of  an  entire  genus,  while  in  the  wood  of  others,  as  has 
already  been  noted  among  the  Cherries,  there  may  not  be 
the  least  affinity.  The  genus  Prunus,  sub-section Oerasus, 
is  not  an  exceptional  instance  of  this  kind,  for  in  all  of  the 
larger  genera  of  trees  and  shrubs  there  are  groups  of  spe- 
cies which  have  a  general  botanical  resemblance,  and  still 
the  wood  of  the  species  of  the  different  groups  have  little  or 
no  affinity.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  instances  where 
a  single  species  of  a  genus  will  not  only  answer  well  as  a 
stock  for  all  the  different  species,  but  also  for  those  be- 
longing to  different  genera  of  the  same  family. 

To  avoid  repetition  and  frequent  reference  to  some  par- 
ticular variety  or  species  of  stock  in  succeeding  chapters, 
those  most  usually  employed  in  propagating  ligneous 
plants  are  named  here  and  as  follows  : 

ABIES  (The  Fir). — See  Coniferse. 

ABUTILOK. — Almost  any  of  the  strong  upright  growing 
species  will  answer  well  as  stocks  upon  which  to  work  the 
feeble  or  the  trailing  species,  like  A.  Megapotamicum, 
when  standard  plants  with  drooping  heads  are  desired. 

ACER  (The  Maple). — In  seeking  a  stock  for  use  in  prop- 
agating any  variety  of  a  species  of  Maple,  it  is  a  good  rule 
to  select  seedlings  of  its  parent  for  stocks,  except  when  a 
stronger  and  more  vigorous  species  can  be  utilized  for 
this  purpose.  The  so-called  Soft  Maples  (A.  dasycarpum 
and  A.  rubnim),  also  known  as  the  Silver  and  Red  Maples, 
have  given  us  a  few  very  desirable  varieties,  and  these 
succeed  best  when  grown  on  Silver  Maple  stocks.  This 
stock  may  also  be  employed  in  propagating  nearly  all  of 
varieties  of  European  Maples,  but  in  a  few  instances,  as 
with  the  varieties  of  the  Sycamore  Maple  (A.  Psuedo-Pla- 


23-4  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

tanus),  and  Field  Maple  (A.  campestre),  have  a  stronger 
affinity  for  their  own  species  than  for  others.  The  Japan 
Maples,  and  there  are  numerous  varieties,  succeed  only 
when  worked  on  stocks  of  closely  allied  species.  No 
American  or  European  species  has  as  yet  been  tried  that 
makes  even  a  passably  good  stock  for  these  Maples,  but 
as  seedlings  of  the  indigeneous  species  of  Japan  can  now 
be  imported  quite  safely  and  cheaply,  propagators  are  not 
seriously  incommoded  by  the  failure  of  other  species  to 
furnish  a  good  stock. 

^ESCULUS  (Horsschestnut). — Varieties  of  the  European 
Horsechestnut  (^2?.  Hippocastanum),  should  be  grafted 
upon  seedlings  of  the  species.  Our  indigeneous  varieties 
and  species,  some  of  which  are  mere  shrubs,  may  be 
grafted  upon  seedlings  of  the  Buckeye  (^E.  glabra),  the 
largest  growing  native  species  of  the  genus. 

ALNUS  (Alder). — The  Heart-shaped  Leaved  Alder 
(A.  cordifolia),  makes  an  excellent  stock  for  trees  to  be 
planted  in  a  dry  soil,  while  the  Sticky  Alder  (A.  glu- 
tinosd),  is  the  best  for  moderately  dry  soils.  These  are 
both  natives  of  Europe,  but  it  is  quite  probable  that  some 
of  oar  North  American  species  will  yet  prove  equally  as 
valuable  for  stocks,  especially  those  which  grow  to  a  large 
size,  like  the  Red  Alder  (A.  rubm},  of  the  northwest, 
and  the  Oblong-leaved  Alder  (A.  oUongifolia),  of  New 
Mexico  and  the  regions  westward. 

AURAUCARIA. — See  Coniferse. 

ARBOR  VIT^E. — See  Ooniferae. 

ARBUTUS  (Strawberry  Tree). — The  common  European 
species  (A.  Unedo)  is  usually  employed  as  a  stock  for  the 
various  species  and  varieties  of  the  genus. 

AZALEA. — For  all  the  various  species  and'  varieties  of 
the  deciduous  Azaleas  the  two  North  American  species, 
known  as  A.  viscosa  and  A.  nudiflora,  have  proved  to  be 
superior,  if  not  the  very  best,  stocks  known.  They  are  ex- 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  235 

tremely  hardy,  and  the  varieties  of  the  Pontic  Azaleas  (A. 
Pontica),  and  the  semi-evergreen  of  the  Chinese  (A.Sinen- 
sis  or  mollis  of  some  authors),  take  readily  to  these  stocks, 
forming  a  close  and  lasting  union  and  insuring  a  vigor- 
ous growing  plant.  The  American  Flame-colored  Azalea 
(A.  calendulacea) ,  is  also  a  good  stock,  but  is  not  quite  as 
hardy  as  the  first  two.  A .  viscosa  is  the  stronger  grower  of 
the  two,  and  for  this  reason  is  usually  preferred  as  a  stock 
for  the  larger  growing  varieties  of  Pontica,  mollis  and  the 
various  hybrids  between  the  Pontic  and  American  species. 
For  cultivation  in  our  Northern  States,  as  well  as  in  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe,  the  two  first-named  species 
of  Azaleas  are  without  doubt  the  best  for  stocks. 

BETULA  (Birch). — Seedlings  of  the  strongest  growing 
species,  like  the  White  Birch  of  Europe  (B.  alba)  or  the 
American  Sweet  Birch  (B.  lento)  and  Paper  Birch  (B. 
papyracea),  are  preferred  as  stocks  for  the  many  varieties 
of  different  species  now  in  cultivation. 

CALOPHACA  (Lentil  Shrub). — The  common  Laburnum 
(L.  vulgare),  is  employed  as  a  stock  for  the  C.  Wolgarica, 
a  low-growing  shrub,  native  of  Siberia.  Grafting  is  only 
practised  for  the  purpose  of  producing  graceful  little  trees 
of  only  a  few  feet  in  height ;  consequently,  the  stocks 
should  be  tall  and  straight,  and  the  cion  inserted  six  feet 
or  more  from  the  ground. 

CAMELLIA. — Seedlings  or  plants  raised  from  cuttings  of 
the  single  flowered  variety  are  usually  preferred  for  stocks. 
Double  flowering  varieties  may,  however,  be  re-grafted 
wherever  desired,  thereby  making  what  are  called  "double 
worked"  plants. 

CARAGANA  (Siberian  Pea  Tree). — Seedlings  of  C.  ar- 
bor escsns  are  the  best  stocks  on  which  to  work  the 
smaller  growing  species  and  varieties.  The  weeping  or. 
pendulous  variety  should  be  worked  on  rather  tall 
stocks,  to  allow  room  for  the  growth  of  the  drooping  twigs 
and  branches. 


236  PROPAGATION    OF   PLANTS. 

CARPINTJS  (Hornbeam). — Seedlings  of  the  American 
(C.  Americana),  and  European  (C.  Betulus),  are  used  as 
stocks  for  the  Cut-leaved,  Oak-leaved  and  other  varieties 
of  the  Hornbeam  in  cultivation.  The  American  species 
is  the  most  rapid  growing  tree  while  young,  but  it  is 
said  that  it  does  not  reach  quite  so  large  a  size  in  ol<\  age. 

CASTAHEA  (Chestnut). — For  cultivation  in  this  coun- 
try the  American  Sweet  Chestnut  (C.  vesca  var.  Ameri- 
cana), is  undoubteldy  the  best  stock  for  all  the  European 
and  oriental  species  and  varieties,  including  the  recently 
introduced  Japan  Chestnut.  The  common  American 
Chestnut  tree  grows  to  a  very  large  size  and  is  perfectly 
hardy  where  many  of  the  varieties  of  the  European 
species  are  tender.  It  is  said  that  the  Chestnut  succeeds 
moderately  well  when  grafted  on  the  Oak,  but  it  will  sel- 
dom be  necessary  to  employ  Oak  stocks,  as  seedlings  of  the 
Chestnut  are  usually  cheap  and  readily  obtained. 

CATALPA  (Indian  Bean). — Seedlings  or  root  cuttings 
of  the  common  American  Catalpas  ( C.  Ugnonioides  and 
C.  speciosa),  may  be  used  as  stocks  for  the  less  vigorous 
growing  varieties  or  oriental  species. 

CEDBUS  (Cedar). — See  Coniferae. 

CEBASUS  (Cherry),  Sub-section  of  Prunus. — The  same 
kind  of  stocks  are  usually  employed  for  the  ornamental 
species  and  varieties  of  the  Cherry  as  for  those  cultivated 
for  their  fruit.  The  dwarf  and  trailing  varieties,  when 
worked  on  tall,  straight  stocks  of  the  Mazzard,  form 
handsome,  round-headed  or  broad-spreading,  pendulous- 
branched  trees,  much  admired  for  ornamental  purposes. 
With  some  of  the  Japanese  varieties  it  is  best  to  graft  or 
bud  low  down  and  then  train  to  a  stake  until  the  stem 
reaches  the  desired  height ;  then  cut  off  and  allow  the 
head  to  form  as  though  grafted  high.  This  treatment  is 
recommended  because  the  wood  of  some  of  the  oriental 
varieties  is  not  so  likely  to  be  injured  by  cold  in  winter 
or  by  the  heat  in  summer,  as  that  of  the  Mazzard  Cherry. 


SELECTING    STOCKS.  237 

Varieties  of  the  evergreen  species  of  the  Cherry,  such  as 
C.  ilicifolia,  C.  Lauro-cerasus  and  the  C.  Lu&itanica, 
should,  of  course,  be  grafted  on  stocks  of  their  own  or 
closely  allied  species. . 

CHAM^ECYPARIS  (Cypress). — See  Coniferae. 

CHICK  ANT  H  us  (White  Fringe). — Almost  any  species 
of  the  Ash  (Fraxinus),  makes  a  good  stock  for  the 
American  White  Fringe  (C.  Virginica)  and  the  Chinese 
species  (C.  retusus).  The  European  Ash  (F.  excelsior), 
is,  however,  usually  preferred  to  the  American  species  as 
a  stock  for  the  fringe  trees. 

CONIFERS  (Cone  Bearing). — With  but  few  exceptions, 
the  Conifers  are  evergreen  trees  or  shrubs.  The  ever- 
green kinds  must  necessarily  be  confined  to  stocks  of  the 
same  group  and  the  deciduous  to  their  own.  As  a  rule, 
in  seeking  stocks  for  the  Conifers,  the  nearer  we  can  keep 
to  the  species  from  which  the  varieties  under  propagation 
originated,  the  better,  although  in  a  few  instances  some 
closely  allied  species  may  have  proved  to  be  superior  for 
this  purpose  than  the  original.  For  the  Abies  or  Firs, 
the  European  Silver  Fir  (A.  pectinata),  has  been  most 
extensively  used  as  a  stock  for  the  different  species  and 
varieties  of  the  genus,  mainly  because  it  was  most  com- 
mon and  readily  obtained.  Any  of  the  other  larger  grow- 
ing species  native  of  cool  climates  will,  however,  answer 
equally  well. 

With  the  Pines  (Pinus),  the  species  with  two  and  three 
leaves  in  a  bundle  should  be  employed  for  varieties  of  the 
same,  such  as  P.  sylvestris,  P.  s.  nana,  P.  Muglio 
compacta,  P.  Pyrenaica,  P.  densiflora,  etc.  The  com- 
mon Austrian  Pine  (P.  Austriaca),  may  be  used  as 
a  stock  for  our  Western  Pines  (P.  ponderosa,  P.  Coulteri 
and  P.  Sabiniana),  as  these  all  have  heavy,  coarse-grained 
wood,  and  are  closely  allied  to  the  Austrian  Pine.  But 
\i  good,  rapid  and  free  growing  three-leaved  species  is 


238  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

usually  preferred  as  a  stock  upon  which  to  work  both  the 
two-leaved  and  the  three-leaved  species.  The  common 
Eed  or  Norway  Pine  (P.  resinosa),  is  one  of  the  very  best 
of  the  two-leaved  species  as  a  stock  for  other  closely  allied 
species  and  varieties.  The  common  White  Pine  (P. 
Strobus),  is  the  best  stock  for  all  of  the  five-leaved  species, 
such  as  P.  flexilis,  P.  excslsa,  P.  Cembra,  P.  Mandshur- 
ica,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Junipers  (Juniper us),  are  rarely  propagated  by 
grafting,  as  they  are  readily  multiplied  by  seeds  and  cut- 
tings ;  but  almost  any  of  the  strong-growing  species,  like 
/.  Virginiana,  will  make  good  stocks  for  the  varieties  of 
feeble  and  strong-growing  kinds.  For  the  Arbor  Vitaes, 
including  the  Biotas,  Thujas  and  Retinisporas,  the  com- 
mon American  species  (Thuja  occidentalis),  may  be  em- 
ployed in  preference  to  any  other.  For  the  Piceas  or 
Spruces,  the  commom  Norway  Spruce  is  one  of  the 
best  for  stocks,  as  it  is  a  very  free-growing,  hardy 
tree,  and  thrives  in  a  great  variety  of  soils.  The 
true  Cedars  (Cedrus),  such  as  the  Cedar  of  Lebanon 
(C.  Libani)  and  Deodar  Cedar  (C.  Deodara),  may 
bs  grafted  on  seedlings  of  their  own  species,  or  on 
those  of  the  Mt.  Atlas  Cedar  (C.  Atlantica).  European 
nurserymen  prefer  the  latter  when  they  can  be  obtained. 
For  the  Hemlock  Spruces  or  Tsugas,  the  common  North 
American  species  (T.  Canadensis),  is  probably  the  best 
for  stocks,  it  being  one  of  the  most  hardy  of  the  genus. 
The  Larches  (Larix),  including  the  False  Larch  (Pseu- 
dolarix),  are  grafted  on  stocks  of  the  common  Larch, 
the  European  species  (L.  Europcea),  being  usually  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  The  oriental  Cypress  ( Glypto- 
strobus),  is  so  closely  related  to  the  common  Cypress 
of  our  Southern  States  ( Taxodium  disticlium),  that  the 
latter  is  used  as  a  stock  for  the  former,  with  its  allied 
species  and  varieties. 

CORPUS  (Dogwood). — Seedlings  of  the  common  Ameri- 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  233 

can  Dogwood  (0.  florida),  is  the  best  stock  upon  which 
to  bud  or  graft  its  own  varieties,  or  those  of  other 
closely  allied  species.  The  herbaceous  species,  of  course, 
are  not  propagated  by  these  modes. 

CORYLUS  (Hazel  or  Filbert). — The  Hazelnuts  are  rarely 
propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  in  this  country,  but 
in  Europe  the  weak-growing  and  dwarf  varieties  are 
sometimes  worked  on  the  stronger.  Seedlings  of  the  com- 
mon European  Hazel  (C.  Avelland),  it  being  one  of  the 
most  hardy  and  free-growing  species,  is  preferred  as  a 
stock.  Seedlings  are  preferable  to  layers  or  cuttings,  as 
they  have  a  better  root  system;  that  is,  longer  and  stronger 
side  or  brace-roots,  as  they  are  termed. 

COTO^EASTER. — The  deciduous  species  grow  freely  on 
either  Quince  or  Hawthorn  stock,  while  the  evergreen 
species  are  usually  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings. 

CRAT^GCTS  (Hawthorn,  White  Thorn). — Seedlings  of 
any  of  the  strongest  growing  species  may  be  employed  as 
stocks  for  the  double  flowering  and  other  varieties.  For 
cultivation  in  this  country,  stocks  of  the  indigenous 
species  are  preferable  to  the  European. 

CYTISUS  (Broom,  Scotch,  Spanish,  etc.) — The  smaller, 
trailing,  or  low-growing  species  may  be  grafted  on  stocks 
of  the  stronger  growing,  or  on  the  Laburnum,  if  stand- 
ard plants  are  desired. 

DAPHNE  (Spurge  Laurel). — The  Daphnes  are  princi- 
pally low-growing  evergreen  shrubs,  rarely  propagated 
by  grafting,  but  scarce  species  and  varieties  may  be  grown 
on  stocks  of  the  common  European  Spurge  Laurel 
(D.  Laureola). 

EUONYMUS  (Spindle  Tree,  Burning  Bush,  Wahoo,  etc.) 
— Seedlings  of  the  larger  and  stronger  growing  species,  like 
the  American  Burning  Bush  (E.  atropurpureus) ,  and 
the  European  Spindle  tree  (E.  Europceus),  are  often  em- 
ployed as  stocks  upon  which  to  work  the  broad-leaved 


240  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

species  (E.  latifolius).  The  evergreen  species  are  usu- 
ally propagated  by  layers  and  cuttings. 

JExocHORDA  (Great-Flowered  Spiraea). — No  suitable 
stock  has  as  yet  been  found  for  these  noble  shrubs  from 
the  North  of  China,  but  small  pieces  of  their  own  roots 
are  employed  in  place  of  larger  stocks,  the  cion  being 
affixed  to  them  by  splice  grafting. 

FAGUS  (The  Beech). — Seedlings  of  the  American 
Beech  (F.  ferruginea),  and  the  European  (F.  sylvatica), 
are  generally  employed  as  stocks  for  the  different  varieties 
in  cultivation.  Varieties  of  the  Evergreen  Beeches  of 
South  America  and  New  Zealand  would,  of  course,  be 
grown  on  stocks  of  the  species  from  which  they  origi- 
nated. 

FRAXINUS  (Ash). — Seedlings  of  the  common  Euro- 
pean Ash  (F.  excelsior),  are  the  best  for  stocks  for  all  the 
European  and  American  species  and  varieties.  Long  ex- 
perience in  the  use  of  the  European  Ash  as  a  stock  for 
the  many  cultivated  varieties,  has  fully  established  its 
reputation  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  very  best,  species 
to  be  employed  as  a  stock.  The  young  wood  is  soft,  fine 
grained,  and  either  buds  or  cions  unite  to  it  readily. 
The  different  species  of  the  American  Ash  may,  of 
course,  be  employed  as  stocks  for  their  own  or  foreign 
varieties,  but  the  European  Ash  is  usually  preferred. 

GLEDITSCHIA  (Honey  Locust). — The  common  American 
Honey  Locust,  or  Three-Thorned  Acacia  ( G.  triacanthos), 
is  an  excellent  stock  for  the  Chinese  species  and  varieties, 
as  well  as  the  thornless  and  other  varieties  of  our  native 
species. 

HALESIA  (Snowdrop  Tree).  —  As  the  Four-winged 
Halesia  (H.  tetraptera),  is  the  largest  growing  and  most 
hardy  species  of  the  genus,  it  is  the  best  stock.  This, 
and  closely  allied  spscies,  may  also  be  employed  as 
stocks  for  other  species  of  the  Styracacem  or  Storax  family, 
as,  for  instance,  the  Japan  Sty  rax  (8.  Japonicd),  and 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  241 

Pterostyrax  hispidum,  and  the  different  North  Ameri- 
can species  of  Styrax. 

HALIMODENDRON  (Silver- Leaf ).  —  These  Siberian 
shrubs  succeed  best  when  grafted  on  stocks  of  the  Car  a- 
gana  arborea,  or  Siberian  Pea  Tree. 

ILEX  (Holly). — The  common  evergreen  American 
Holly  (/.  opaca),  is  without  doubt  the  best  stock  for  the 
closely  allied  species  and  varieties,  especially  if  they  are 
to  be  cultivated  in  cool  or  cold  climates.  But  as  seedlings 
of  this  species  are  not  so  readily  procured  as  those  of  the 
European  Holly  (/.  Aquifolium),  the  latter  are  more 
generally  used  for  this  purpose. 

JUGLANS  (Walnut,  Butternut), — Seedlings  of  the  larger 
growing  varieties  of  the  European  Walnut  (Juglans 
regia),  are  usually  employed  as  stocks  for  the  different 
cultivated  varities.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  common 
American  Butternut  (J.  cinerea),  could  also  be  utilized 
for  the  same  purpose,  but  further  experiments  are  needed 
to  determine  its  real  value  as  a  stock. 

LAEIX. — See  Conifers. 

MAGNOLIA. — Seedlings  of  the  common  American  Cu- 
cumber-Tree (M.  acuminata),  are  usually  recommended 
as  the  best  stocks  for  all  of  the  deciduous  species  of  the 
Magnolia,  whether  natives  of  China,  Japan  or  America. 
But  Mr.  J.  E.  Trumpy,  of  the  Kissena  Nurseries,  of  Flush- 
ing, N".  Y.,  who  has  probably  propagated  a  greater  num- 
ber of  species  and  varieties  of  the  Magnolia  than  any  other 
man  in  this  country  or  Europe,  is  quite  emphatic  in 
giving  the  preference  to  the  Umbrella  Magnolia  (M. 
Umbrella),  also  called  M.  tripetala.  He  says  that  the  lat- 
ter species  is  more  easily  worked  and  produces  a  greater 
number  of  fibrous  roots,  consequently  is  not  so  seriously 
affected  by  transplanting. 

PLANERA  (Planer  Tree). — All  the  species  and  varieties 
from  Japan  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  those  indigenous  to 


242  PROPAGATION   OF    PLANTS. 

North  America,  grow  freely  on  the  Elm  ( Ulmus).  The 
common  American  and  English  Elm  may  both  be  em- 
ployed as  stocks  for  the  Planeras. 

QUEECUS  (Oak). — In  selecting  stocks  for  the  Oaks,  the 
propagator  will  secure  the  best  results  by  taking  seedlings 
of  closely  related  species  of  each  of  the  several  groups  that 
are  usually  designated  under  such  names  as  White  Oaks, 
Black  and  Bed  Oaks,  Chestnut  Oaks,  Willow  Oaks  and 
Evergreen  Oaks.  The  English  Oak  and  our  native  White 
Oaks  are  closely  allied  and  may  be  interchanged  as  stocks 
for  each  other.  The  European  Oaks  (Q.  Robur  and 
Q.  pedunculata),  will  probably  serve  as  stocks  for  a  larger 
number  of  species  and  varieties  than  any  other  two  species 
that  have  been  tried.  Most  of  our  North  American 
Oaks  take  on  these  quite  readily,  while,  on  the  contrary, 
very  few  of  the  American  species  will  answer  as  stocks 
for  the  European  varieties.  The  Chestnut  Oaks  come 
next,  as  the  acorns  of  both  groups  mature  the  first  year. 
The  Willow  Oaks  are  biennial  fruited,  and  some  of  them 
almost  evergreen,  consequently  not  so  closely  allied  as 
the  two  first  groups.  The  Scrub,  Black  and  Rod  Oaks 
have  rather  coarse-grained  wood,  and  are  rather  indiffer- 
ent stocks  to  work,  even  for  varieties  of  their  own  species. 
The  Q.  Ilex  is  the  species  most  usually  employed  as  a 
stock  for  the  evergreen  species  and  varieties,  although 
most  of  the  evergreen  Oaks  may  be  readily  propagated  by 
cuttings. 

RHODODENDRON  (Rose  Bay). — The  R.  Ponticum,  from 
Southern  Europe,  has  been  more  extensively  employed  as 
a  stock  than  any  other  species,  and  while  it  has  served 
the  purpose  well  in  Europe,  it  is  inferior  in  growth  and 
hardiness  to  oar  native  species,  R.  maximum  and  R. 
Catawbiense.  The  former  is  superior  to  the  Pontic 
species  as  a  stock  for  the  Rhododendron  in  this  country, 
although  probably  not  so  readily  obtained,  or  so  cheap. 


SELECTING   STOCKS.  243 

ROBINIA  (Locust  or  False  Acacia).— Seedlings  of  the 
common  Locust  (R.  Pseud  acacia),  are  the  best  stocks  for 
the  varieties  of  the  species,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Rose 
Acacia  (R.  liispida).  The  latter  and  its  varieties,  when 
grown  on  their  own  roots,  produce  suckers  so  freely  that 
they  become  a  nuisance  in  the  garden. 

ROSA  (Rose).  —  Many  species  and  varieties  are  em- 
ployed as  stocks,  and  in  Europe  the  Wild  Dog  Rose  (R. 
canina),  is  usually  recommended  for  this  purpose.  The 
wild  plants  as  they  are  found  in  the  hedges  and  woods 
are  used,  as  well  as  seedlings  raised  in  the  nursery.  A 
variety  known  as  the  Manetti  is  extensively  employed  as 
a  stock  in  this  country,  and  appears  to  thrive  better  in 
our  climate  than  the  Dog  Rose,  and  for  this  reason  is 
usually  preferred.  It  is  readily  raised  by  cuttings,  .these 
producing  plants  large  enough  for  use  the  first  season. 
The  common  Sweet  Briar  (R.  ruMginosa),  which  is  a  nat- 
uralized species  from  Enropo,  is  also  an  excellent  stock 
for  nearly  all  of  the  cultivated  varieties.  It  is  less  likely 
to  produce  suckers  than  the  Manetti,  and  is  exceedingly 
hardy. 

SALIX  (Willow). — The  varieties  usually  propagated  by 
grafting  will,  as  a  rule,  succeed  best  on  stocks  of  their 
own  species.  The  common  Kilmarnock  Willow  being 
only  a  variety  of  the  English  Goat  Willow  (8.  Caprea), 
the  cions  take  more  readily  on  this  stock  than  on  any 
other.  It  will  grow,  however,  on  the  Pointed-leaved 
Willow  (S.  acuminata],  also  indigenous  to  Great  Britain, 
but  the  cions  do  not  take  as  readily  and  freely,  but 
when  they  do  unite,  the  union  is  quite  perfect  and  lasting. 
The  so-called  American  Weeping  or  Fountain  Willow 
(S.  purpurea  pendula),  is  a  trailing  variety,  of  the 
English  Bitter  Willow,  and  may  be  grafted  on  stocks  of 
either  of  the  above-named  species. 

SOPHORA  JAPONIC  A. — The  Weeping  and  Variegated- 
leaved  varieties  are  grown  on  seedling  stocks  of  the  species. 


244  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

TILIA  (Linden  or  Bass  wood). — The  common  American 
Linden  (T.  Americana),  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
rapid  growing  species  of  the  genus.  It  is  also  less  liable 
to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases  than  the  European 
species  ;  consequently,  to  be  preferred  as  a  stock  for  all 
the  different  varieties  and  species  as  yet  brought  to  notice. 
Seedlings  are  better  than  plants  raised  from  cuttings  or 
layers. 

ULMUS  (Elm). — The  varieties  of  the  different  species 
succeed  best  on  the  mother  stock.  That  is,  the  many 
varieties  of  the  English  Elm  ( U.  campestris),  should  be 
grown  on  the  stocks  of  the  original  species,  and  those  of 
the  Scotch  or  Wych  Elm  (U.  montana),  on  their  own 
species.  The  common  Camperdown  Weeping  Elm  belongs 
to  the  last  species,  and  should  be  grafted  on  seedling  stocks 
of  the  same.  Of  course,  in  case  the  proper  stocks  are  not 
at  hand,  other  closely  allied  species  may  be  used,  but  it 
is  always  best  to  select  stocks  from  the  species  from  which 
the  varieties  originated. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

INFLUENCE  OF  CION  AND  STOCK. 

In  selecting  cuttings,  cions  and  buds,  it  is  well  to  keep 
in  mind  the  fact  that  they  have  more  or  less  influence  in 
determining  the  future  value  of  the  plant  raised  therefrom. 
Whatever  faults  or  merits  are  possessed  by  the  parent 
plant  are  likely  to  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  and 
either,  under  certain  conditions,  may  be  increased  er  de- 
creased many  fold.  If  we  desire  early  fruiting,  we  should 
select  wood  for  propagation  from  mature  or  bearing 
plants,  instead  of  from  the  young  and  immature.  But 
we  may  readily  carry  this  kind  of  selection  too  far, 
for  very  early  and  premature  fruiting  is  not  always 
desirable,  especially  with  trees  which  need  to  be  of  con- 


INFLUENCE   OF   CION   AND   STOCK.  245 

siderablc  size,  to  enable  them  to  sustain  a  fair  or  large 
crop.  Continuous  propagation  from  old,  mature  and 
productive  specimen  trees  may  increase  the  tendency  to 
a  premature  old  age  and  decay.  Almost  any  peculiar 
form  of  growth,  or  other  characteristic  of  a  variety  or 
species,  may  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring  through  the 
part  employed  in  its  propagation.  We  may' not  in  every 
instance  be  able  to  perpetuate  abnormal  characteristics 
at  first,  but  by  repeated  selections  of  parts  showing  a 
variation  from  the  normal  type,  we  can  usually  fix  and 
perpetuate  almost  any  peculiar  habit  or  form  of  plant. 

In  selecting  parts  of  herbaceous  plants,  the  same  rule 
holds  good  as  in  the  ligneous,  and  we  may  increase  the 
floriferous  habit  by  continuous  propagating  from  the 
flowering  stems  and  branches,  until  the  plant  perishes 
from  what  may  be  termed  over-exhaustion. 

INFLUENCE  OF  STOCK  VOJS^CION. — That  the  stock  upon 
which  a  cion  is  set  has  influence  upon  its  future  growth 
is  well  known.  If  it  were  not  so,  then  the  art  of  propa- 
gating plants  by  budding  and  grafting  would  be  less  valu- 
able than  now. 

The  stock  not  only  acts  as  a  medium  through  which  the 
cipn  obtains  sustenance  from  the  earth,  but  it  in  a  measure 
imparts  its  own  characteristics  tp  it;  and  it  is  thus  we 
change  the  giant  into  a  dwarf,  the  slow  growing  plant 
into  a  rapid  one,  and  many  other  variations  from  the 
natural  habits  of  plants,  simply  through  the  influence 
of  the  stock  on  the  cion  or  graft. 

While  we  may  not,  in  every  instance,  be  able  to  deter- 
mine the  true  cause  of  certain  variations,  which  may  appear 
to  be  antagonistic  with  what  we  call  natural  laws,  still,  for 
all  practical  purposes,  our  knowledge  of  this  subject  is 
sufficient  to  enable  us,  in  many  instances,  to  so  change 
natural  products  that  their  value  is  increased  many  fold. 

The  common  mode  of  producing  dwarf  trees  is  one  of 
the  most  familiar  instances  of  the  influence  of  the  stock 


246  PROPAGATION    OF   PLANTS. 

on  the  graft.  It  mainly  affects  the  form  and  habit  of 
growth,  but  is  not  necessarily  debilitating,  for  size  and 
rapid  growth  are  not  always  trustworthy  signs  of  perfect 
health  or  great  longevity. 

In  some  instances  we  employ  stocks  as  a  mere  tem- 
porary support  to  the  cion,  not  expecting  or  desiring  a 
permanent  union,  as  in  grafting  the  tree  Pseonia 
upon  the  tuber  of  the  herbaceous,  or  the  stem  of  one 
Dahlia  upon  the  tuber  of  another.  But  with  trees  we 
usually  seek  permanency,  and  therefore  select  stocks  that 
shall  not  only  support  the  graft,  but  aid  in  developing 
those  particular  characteristics  which  are  most  desired. 
The  influence  of  the  stock  upon  the  graft  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows  : 

First,  The  stock  gathers  the  crude  materials  for  the 
support  of  the  graft  from  the  soil,  and  in  doing  so  it 
may  supply  it  in  such  quantities  as  to  produce  rapid 
growth,  or  the  reverse. 

Second,  The  tendency  of  the' stock  is  to  impart  its  own 
habit  of  growth  to  the  graft. 

Third,  One  species  of  stock  will  extract  from  the  soil 
the  peculiar  components  which  are  necessary  to  support 
the  graft,  while  another  will  not ;  consequently,  a  variety 
or  species  may  fail  upon  one  stock  and  succeed  upon 
another  in  the  same  soil  and  locality. 

Fourth,  The  hardiness  of  a  tree  is  but  slightly  changed 
or  affected  by  the  stock,  except  as  its  growth  is  influenced 
to  mature  early  or  late  in  the  season. 

Fifth,  The  quality  of  a  fruit  is  occasionally  in- 
fluenced by  the  stock,  but  the  true  cause  of  this  is  not  as 
yet  sufficiently  understood  to  allow  of  any  rules  being 
given  by  which  it  may  be  avoided.  Size  of  fruit  is  also 
in  some  instances  considerably  changed  by  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent stocks.  I  have  known  two  Bartlett  Pear  trees  of 
the  same  age,  standing  side  by  side,  and  apparently  of 
equal  vigor,  still,  for  ten  years,  one  has  produced  very 


INFLUENCE   OF   CION    AND   STOCK.  247 

large  fruit  and  the  other  small.  The  number  of  speci- 
mens upon  each  tree  being  reduced  to  an  equal  number, 
the  difference  in  size  remained  the  same.  With  such  ex- 
amples before  us,  we  cannot  but  conclude  that  the  stock, 
in  some  instances,  does  exert  sufficient  influence  to  change 
the  size  of  the  fruit,  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  tree. 

Sixth,  The  stock  will  not  only  impart  vigor  to  the  graft, 
but  also  transmit  diseases.  It  is  therefore  just  as  import- 
ant to  avoid  the  one  as  to  endeavor  to  secure  the  other. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  CION  ON  THE  STOCK. — The  influ- 
ence of  the  cion  on  the  stock  is  a  subject  only  occasionally 
referred  to  in  our  modern  horticultural  works.  Down- 
ing says:  "  The  influence  of  the  graft  on  the  stock  seems 
scarcely  to  extend  beyond  the  power  of  communicating 
disease."  But,  if  we  have  discovered  this  much,  it  proves 
that  there  is  an  influence,  and  if  it  is  sufficiently  potent 
to  "communicate  disease,"  then  it  is  probably  powerful 
enough  to  impart  other  properties  as  well.  Mr.  J.  J. 
Thomas,  in  his  "  American  Fruit  Culturist,"  edition  of 
1849,  says:  "The  extension  of  the  stock  by  successive 
depositions  from  the  leaves  of  the  graft  and  through  the 
cellular  system  of  the  bark,  so  as  to  preserve  the  strict 
specific  identity  of  the  wood  of  the  former,  is  familiar  to 
every  practical  cultivator."  The  same  seedling  Cherry 
stocks,  grafted  with  sorts  of  different  degrees  of  vigor, 
soon  vary  in  amount  and  size  of  the  fibrous  roots.  Trees 
of  the  Imperial  Gage  and  Jefferson  Plums,  a  few  feet  in 
height,  when  budded  on  the  Wild  Plum,  were  found  to 
have  only  half  the  amount  of  roots  possessed  by  the  un- 
budded  stock  of  the  same  age. 

Every  nurseryman  must  have  observed  that  some 
varieties  of  the  Pear,  as  well  as  of  the  Plum  and  Cherry, 
have  a  far  greater  number  of  fibrous  roots  than  others. 
So  marked  is  this  difference  that  the  common  laborers  in 
the  nursery  soon  learn  to  distinguish  them  and  will  pro- 
ceed quite  differently  in  digging  the  trees  of  each  variety, 


248  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

knowing  that  one  has  few  long  naked  roots,  while  the 
others  have  short  and  numerous  fibrous  ones.  These 
various  forms  of  roots  cannot  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for  in  any  other  way  but  to  ascribe  the  cause  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  graft.  If  we  take  a  seedling  Apple  tree  of  one 
or  two  years  old,  and  divide  the  root  into  two  parts,  upon 
one  of  which  we  splice  a  cion  .of  Monmouth  Pippin,  and 
on  the  other  one  of  the  Korthern  Spy,  and  plant  both  in 
exactly  the  same  soil,  side  by  side,  and  cultivate  them  alike, 
after  three  or  four  years  the  roots  will  ha.ve  a  decidedly 
diiferent  appearance  both  411  color  and  form.  Still,  with 
all  the  influence  the  cion  has  had  upon  the  roots  in  chang- 
their  form  and  color,  if  cuttings  are  taken  from  these 
roots  and  forced  to  produce  shoots,  the  plants  thus  raised 
will  be  of  the  original  type,  showing  that  the  influence  of 
the  cion  is  not  perpetual,  but  continues  only  so  long  as 
the  roots  are  in  position  to  gatlfler  the  crude  nutrients 
from  the  soil  for  the  leaves  on  the  cion  to  assimilate ; 
thus,  while  this  reciprocal  action  continues,  whether  it  be 
for  one  or  fifty  years,  the  cion  will  continue  to  hold  its 
influence  over  the  stock  or  roots. 

A  few  instances  have  been  recorded  where  the  dons  with 
variegated  leaves  have  so  influenced  the  stock  as  to  cause 
it  to  produce  shoots  below  the  point  of  union,  bearing 
leaves  like  those  on  the  cion.  But  whether  this  change 
is  due  to  some  disease  inherited  in  the  cion,  or  the  inter- 
mingling of  the  cellular  matter  of  the  two  parts,  has 
never  been  fully  determined.  Although  this  subject  of 
reciprocal  action  between  stock  and  graft  has  been  fre- 
quently referred  to  by  writers  on  horticultural  topics, 
from  the  time  Pliny  wrote  his  "Historia  Naturalis,"  down 
to  the  present,  still,  there  does  -not,  appear  to  have  been 
any  very  carefully  conducted  experiments  made  for  the 
express  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  exact  extent  or  limits. 
It  remains  an  almost  wholly  unexplored  field,  to  be  occu- 
pied by  some  future  disciple  of  vegetable  phenomenology. 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  249 

CHAPTER     XIX. 
SELECT  LISTS  OF  PLANTS. 

In  the  following  lists  of  plants  annuals  are  omitted,  for 
it  is  presumed  that  every  cultivator  of  the  soil  knows  that 
these  are  generally  propagated  by  seed.  There  may  be 
an  occasional  instance  where  it  is  desirable  to  perpetuate 
an  annual  by  cuttings,  but  these  may  be  considered  as 
exceptions  to  a  general  rule.  Furthermore,  as  this  work 
is  not  intended  to  be  a  botanical  dictionary,  nor  an  ency- 
clopaedia of  plants,  the  author  only  aims  to  mention  those 
species  and  varieties  which  are  to  be  found  in  cultivation 
either  in  the  gardens  or  conservatories  of  the  inhabitants 
of  temperate  climates. 

The  plants  will  be  named  in  alphabetical  order  accord- 
ing to  their  botanical  names,  one  or  more  of  the  common 
or  local  names  being  added  when  known ;  but  there  are 
many  species  to  which  none  have  as  yet  been  given — a 
fact  not  at  all  to  be  regretted,  as  local  and  popular  names 
are  usually  as  untrustworthy  as  they  are  unnecessary  and 
confusing. 

TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  VINES,  WITH  BRIEF  NOTES  ON  HABITS 
AND  MODES  OF  PROPAGATION. 

Abelia. — Mostly  evergreen  shrubs,  adapted  to  cool  greenhouse  cul- 
ture in  cold  climates.  Propagated  by  green  cuttings  taken  off  in  summer 
and  planted  in  a  close  frame,  or  by  layering  in  the  house. 

Abies  (Balsam  Fir,  Etc.)— Well  known  coniferous  trees',  propagated 
by  seeds  preserved  dry  over  winter,  and  then  sown  in  light  soil  in  frames, 
I  cr  where  water  and  shade  can  be  applied  when  required.  Varieties  are 
propagated  by  veneer  grafting  under  glass  late  in  summer. 

Abroma. — East  India  and  New  Holland  evergreen  trees  ;  succeeding 
only  where  they  can  be  given  a  high  temperature.  Increased  by  seeds 
or  cuttings  of  the  half-ripened  wood  placed  in  a  close  frame  or  under  a 
bell  glass. 

Abutilon  ("  Flowering  Maples  ").— Very  free  blooming  ornamental 
trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  warm  climates,  but  succeeding  in  a  cool 
greenhouse  in  winter  and  in  the  garden  during  the  summer.  New  vari- 


250  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

eties  are  raised  from  seed,  then  increased  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots 
planted  in  sand  in  frames.  Cuttings  root  very  freely,  and  usually  with- 
out dropping  their  flower  buds  if  these  are  left  on  when  the  cuttings  are 
made. 

Acacia. — Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  principally  from  the  tropics — 
Australia,  New  Holland,  East  Indies,  South  America  and  Africa.  About 
400  species  are  known,  but  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  the  number  in 
cultivation.  Propagated  by  seed,  or  cuttings  taken  off  with  a  heel  and 
inserted  in  sand  under  a  bell  glass  or  in  a  close  frame.  Also  by  root- 
cuttings  of  two  or  three  inches  in  length,  placed  in  sand,  with  the  larger 
end  only  lightly  covered. 

Acalypha. — Tropical  shrubs  with  inconspicuous  flowers,  but  rather 
ornamental  foliage.  They  require  a  high  temperature  to  bring  out  the 
bright  color  of  their  leaves.  Propagated  by  cuttings,  taken  off  in  early 
spring  and  placed  in  a  close  frame,  and  given  a  temperature  of  eighty  to 
ninety  degrees,  Fahrenheit. 

Acer  (Maples). — Well-known  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of 
cool  climates.  Seeds  of  such  species  as  American  Silver-leaved  Maple 
(A.  dasycarpuni)  and  Red  Maple  (A.  rubrum),  which  ripen  early  in  sum- 
mer, should  be  sown  immediately  and  covered  very  lightly ;  but  the 
seeds  of  species  ripening  in  autumn  may  be  readily  preserved  by  mixing 
with  clean  sand  and  then  stored  in  a  cool  place  until  spring.  These  late 
ripening  seeds  may  also  be  sown  in  autumn  if  preferred,  although  there 
is  greater  danger  of  loss  from  vermin  than  when  stored  in  sand  over 
winter.  The  varieties  of  the  species  named  may  be  readily  propagated 
by  budding  or  grafting  in  the  nursery,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Hard 
or  Sugar  Maple ;  but  in  grafting,  the  cions  should  be  taken  from  the 
trees  early  in  winter  and  kept  dormant  until  the  sap  has  begun  to  flow 
quite  freely  in  the  stocks.  The  European  varieties  require  similar  treat- 
ment ;  but  the  Japan  Maples  are  more  successfully  grafted  under  glass 
and  by  veneer  grafting,  the  stocks  having  been  grown  in  pots  for  this 
purpose.  The  Japan  Maples  may  also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
green  wood  taken  off  in  summer,  but  the  plants  are  usually  feeble, 
making  a  very  slow  growth  ;  consequently,  this  mode  of  propagation  is 
not  recommended.  The  Negundo  Maple  or  Box  Elder  (A.  Negundo), 
may  be  propagated  by  ripe  wood  cuttings  taken  in  the  fall  and  placed 
in  a  moist  and  warm  position,  where  a  callus  will  be  formed  by  the  time 
they  are  wanted  for  planting  out  in  the  spring.  All  the  species  and 
varieties  of  the  Maple  may  be  increased  by  layers,  made  in  autumn  or 
after  the  leaves  are  nearly  full  formed  in  spring ;  but  plants  raised  from 
layers  are  inferior  to  those  produced  from  seeds,  or  by  budding  and 
grafting. 

Acttnidia  (Japan  Gooseberry). — A  small  genus  of  hardy  deciduous 
climbing  shrubs  from  Japan,  one  of  the  species  bearing  edible  jerries, 
resembling  a  gooseberry  in  size  and  flavor.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers 
and  cuttings  of  the  green  shoots  in  summer.  Both  cuttings  and  layers 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS. 


produce  roots  freely,  but  the  buds  on  them  push  very  slowly  and  often 
fail,  although  the  young  plants  may  have  an  abundance  of  roots. 

Adenocalymna. — Evergreen  climbing  shrubs,  belonging  to  the  same 
order  as  the  common  Bignonia  (Trumpet-creeper),  but  being  native  of  a 
tropical  climate,  they  require  great  heat  to  insure  vigorous  growth  and 
perfect  flowers.  Increased  by  cuttings  placed  where  they  will  receive 
plenty  of  moisture  and  bottom  heat. 

Adenocarpus. — A  genus  containing  both  evergreen  and  deciduous 
.Bhrubs,  bearing  long  racemes  of  yellow  pea-shaped  flowers.  Propagated 
by  seeds,  layers  and  cuttings  of  the  unripe  wood  under  glass. 

Adenostoma  (Chamiso). — A  genus  of  only  two  species  of  small 
evergreen  trees  or  shrubs  indigenous  to  California.  Propagated  by  cut- 
tings of  the  immature  shoots  in  sand  under  a  bell  glass  or  in  frames 

Adhatoda.  —  Greenhouse  o  r 
stove  evergreen  shrubs  from  Brazil 
and  India.  Propagated  by  cuttings 
of  the  young  shoots  placed  in  a  posi- 
tion where  they  will  receive  bottom 
heat. 

sEgiceras  (Goat  Plant).  — Ono 
species  from  New  Holland,  some- 
times cultivated  for  its  white,  fra- 
grant flowers.  A  rather  stocky 
shrub.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of 
the  half-ripened  shoots. 

sEsculus  (Horsechestnut). — De- 
ciduous trees  or  shrubs.  Numerous 
species  and  varieties  in  cultivation. 
The  species  are  usually  propagated 
from  seed.  The  large,  fleshy  nuts 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  they 
fall  from  the  trees  in  autumn — the 

outside  husk  removed— then  either  sown  and  merely  covered 
with  leaves  or  very  light  vegetabla  mold,  or  the  nuts  may 
be  preserved  in  pure  sand  or  sphagnum  until  the  following 
spring.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place  to  prevent 
premature  sprouting  and  decay.  If  the  boxes  containing 
the  nuts  are  buried  in  the  ground  under  an  evergreen  tree, 
or  in  the  shade  of  some  building,  they  will  usually 
pass  through  the  winter  in  good  order.  In  the  germination  of  the 
Horsechestnut,  the  nut  does  not  burst  open  as  in  the  Acorn,  Butternut 
and  Hazelnut,  but  both  plumule  and  radicle  press  through  the  envelope 
on  one  side,  as  shown  in  figure  94.  Varieties  of  the  different  species  are 
propagated  by  budding  and  grafting.  The  most  certain  mode  is  by 
veneer  grafting  under  glass,  and  in  this  climate  during  the  month  oi: 
August.  Seedling  stocks,  placed  in  pots  in  early  spring,  may  be  grafted 


Fig.  94.— HOKSECHEST- 
NUT   GERMINATING. 

[After  Gray]. 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLAXTS. 

the  first  summer,  as  the  stocks  will  produce  plenty  of  small  fibrous  roots 
by  the  time  they  are  wanted  for  use.  Some  of  the  dwarf  species,  like 
the  California  Buckeye  (^.  Californlca),  and  the  Dwarf  Buckeye  (^K. 
parviflora),  of  the  Eastern  States,  are  readily  increased  by  dividing  up  the 
old  stools  or  clumps  of  stems. 

Aganosoma. — Showy  greenhouse  shrubs,  principally  from  India. 
Propagated  by  cuttings  under  glass  with  gentle  bottom  heat. 

Agapetes. — Deciduous  shrubs  from  the  mountains  of  India.  They 
are  closely  allied  to  the  Huckleberries  ( Vacdniacete),  but  require  the 
heat  of  a  warm  greenhouse.  Propagated  by  seeds,  and  half-ripened 
cuttings  under  glass. 

Agathophylliun  (Madagascar  Nutmeg).— An  evergreen  tree  closely 
allied  to  the  Laurels,  the  leaves  having  "the  fragrance  of  the  clove. 
Requires  the  heat  of  a  warm  greenhouse.  Propagated  very  readily  by 
cuttings  of  the  green  shoots. 

Agathosma  (Bucco).— Small,  evergreen,  heath-like  shrubs  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  thriving  in  a  cool  greenhouse  in  winter  and  in  a 
half  shady  position  during  the  summer.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
green,  succulent  shoots  under  glass. 

Ailantus  (Tree  of  Heaven).— A  well  known  tree  from  China ;  the 
staminate  flowers  exhaling  a  disagreeable,  nauseating  odor.  Propagated 
by  seeds  preserved  in  a  dry,  cool  place  over  winter  and  then  sown  in 
spring  and  lightly  covered.  Also  increased  by  suckers  and  cuttings  of 
the  roots.  The  latter  modes  are  not  recommended  except  for  propagat- 
ing the  pistillate  trees,  the  flowers  of  which  are  odorless. 

Akebia. — A  very  hardy  and  handsome  twining  shrub  from  Japan. 
Only  one  species  as  yet  known,  the  A.  quinata,  or  Five-leafletted.  Read- 
ily propagated  by  layers  of  either  the  old  or  young  shoots. 

Alhagi  (Manna  Tree). — Small  shrubs  with  pea-shaped  flowers.  Na- 
tives of  Caucasus.  One  of  the  species,  the  A.  maurorum,  yields  the 
substance  known  as  "manna,"  a  natural  exudation  of  the  leaves  and 
branches.  Propagated  by  seed,  and  cuttings  of  the  green  shoots  placed 
where  they  will  receive  bottom  heat. 

Alnus  (Alder). — Deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  mostly  natives  of  cold 
countries.  The  species  are  usually  propagated  by  seeds  preserved  in  a 
dry,  cool  place  over  winter,  and  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  spring 
and  thinly  covered  with  moss  or  some  light  vegetable  mold,  which  should 
be  kept  constantly  moist  until  the  plants  appear.  Varieties  are  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  of  ripe  wood,  layers  and  grafting  upon  free  growing 
stocks.  The  recently  introduced  Japan  Alder  (A.firma),  succeeds  best 
when  grafted  on  the  European  Sticky  Alder  (A.  gluttnosa). 

Amelanchter  (Juneberry,  Shadbush,  Etc.) — Deciduous  trees  and 
shrubs.  The  North  American  species  are  extremely  variable,  producing 
many  natural  and  widely  different  varieties.  Some  grow  to  trees  thirty 
or  more  feet  in  height,  others  are  merely  dwarf  shrubs  two  or  three  feet 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  253 

high ;  all  producing  edible  and  pleasant-tasting  fruit.  Propagated  by 
seeds,  layers  or  cuttings  of  the  ripe  roots.  The  dwarf  varieties,  when 
grafted  on  tall  stocks  of  the  larger  growing  kinds,  form  handsome,  small, 
round-headed  trees. 

Amorpha  (Lead  Plant,  Indigo  Shrub).— A  genus  of  a  few  species  of 
hardy  shrubs,  all  natives  of  North  America.  There  are  several  local 
forms  or  varieties  in  cultivation.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  sprouts 
and  ripe  wood  cuttings,  taken  off  early  in  the  fall  and  planted  in  a  half 
shady  position,  and  left  undisturbed  until  the  following  autumn. 

Amygdalus  (Almond). — Shrubs  and  trees  of  Almond  or  Plum  ge- 
nus, or  Prunus  of  most  of  the  modern  botanical  works.  Propagated  by 
seeds  or  by  grafting  and  budding  on  Almond,  Peach  and  Plum  stocks. 
The  Dwarf  Double  Flowering  Almond  (A.  nana),  is  readily  propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  larger  roots,  made  in  autumn  and  stored  in  sand  or 
moss  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring,  then  sown  in  drills  and  covered  about 
two  inches  deep  with  light  soil.  These  dwarf  varieties  may  also  be 
budded  on  Peach  or  Plum  stocks,  and  if  the  buds  are  set  three  to  four 
feet  from  the  ground,  very  elegant  littlo  trees  may  be  produced.  Plum 
stocks  are  preferable  to  the  Peach,  as  the  latter  are  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  the  Peach  tree  borer. 

Andromeda. — Neat  little  shrubs — several  of  the  species  evergreen — 
nearly  all  quite  hardy  in  our  Northern  States,  although  some  are  natives 
of  the  South.  Propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  very  light  soil  and  in  seed- 
pans  or  shallow  boxes,  kept  shaded  and  constantly  moist  until  the  plants 
appear,  then  removed  to  a  position  where  they  will  receive  more  light. 
The  Andromedas  may  also  be  propagated  by  layers ;  but  these  produce 
roots  slowly,  and  it  usually  requires  two  years  to  secure  well-rooted 
specimens.  Nurserymen  usually  obtain  their  stocks  from  the  native 
habitats  of  the  species,  as  the  young  plants  may  be  transplanted  with- 
out much  loss. 

Anona  (Custard  Apple).— Trees  and  shrubs  mostly  tropical,  some  of 
the  species  bearing  highly-prized  and  delicious  fruit,  like  the  Cherimoyer 
(A.  cJierimolia),  Sour-sop  (A.  muricata),  and  Sweet-sop  (A.  squamosa),  of 
the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  Propagated  by  seeds  placed  in  a 
moist  and  high  temperature,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood  under 
glass  and  with  bottom  heat. 

Aralia. — A  genus  of  the  order  Araliacece,  containing  numerous 
species  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  a  few  herbaceous  plants.  Among  the 
ligneous  section  the  American  Angelica  tree  or  Hercules  Club  (A.  spin- 
osa),  is  perhaps  the  most  common  in  our  gardens.  The  Chinese  Aralia 
(A.  Chinensis),  is  a  closely  allied  species,  and  moderately  hardy  when 
grown  in  a  rather  dry,  open  soil.  The  recently  introduced  Mandchu- 
rian  Aralia  (A.  Mandchuricus,  or  dimot'phanthus  of  some  authors),  is  as 
hardy  as  our  indigenous  species,  and  is  a  shrub  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  apiarians,  as  it  blooms  profusely  and  its  flowers  yield  a  large  amount 
of  honey.  All  of  the  hardy,  shrubby  species,  and  some  of  the  tender 


254  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

ones,  are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  roots  taken  off  when  the 
plants  are  in  a  dormant  state  in  the  fall.  The  root  cuttings  should  be 
preserved  in  sphagnum,  or  sharp  sand,  until  spring,  or  the  hardy  species 
planted  out  in  the  nursery  and  the  tender  ones  forced  under  glass.  Some 
of  the  tropical  species  are  not  so  easily  propagated  as  the  hardy,  but 
they  may  be  grafted  under  glass,  using  stocks  of  the  more  free-growing 
sorts  for  this  purpose.  All  the  species  may  be  increased  by  seeds,  when- 
ever these  can  be  procured. 

Araticaria  (Norfolk  Island  Pine,  Etc.) — A  genus  of  cone-bearing 
evergreen  trees,  natives  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  none  of  the  species 
quite  hardy  in  our  Northern  States,  although  often  cultivated  in  tubs 
and  pots  for  decorative  purposes  ;  protection  being  given  them  during 
the  winter.  Propagation  by  seeds  is  the  most  satisfactoiy  method,  but 
all  may  be  multiplied  by  layers  and  cuttings  ;  the  latter  should  be  made 
from  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  placed  in  sand  and  in  a  rather  cool 
house  until  callused,  then  given  a  higher  temperature. 

Arbutus  (Strawberry  Tree). — Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs.  Some  of 
the  species  are  hardy,  others  require  the  protection  of  a  greenhouse. 
Propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  the  fall  or  early  in  spring,  and  by  layers  ; 
also  by  budding  on  strong  seedling  stocks. 

Arctostaphylos  (Bear  Berry). — A  genus  of  low-growing  and  trailing 
shrubs,  closely  allied  to  the  last,  and  propagated  by  similar  methods. 

Ardisia.—A  very  extensive  genus  of  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  all 
of  tropical  or  semi-tropical  origin,  cultivated  principally  for  their  orna- 
mental berries,  which  are  quite  persistent,  remaining  on  the  plant 
several  months  after  they  have  assumed  their  brilliant  colors.  Propa- 
gated by  seed  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  half-ripened 
shoots,  planted  in  frames  or  under  bell  glasses. 

Aristolochia  (Birthworts).—  A  genus  of  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  species,  mostly  twining  shrubs,  the  large  majority  being  natives 
of  tropical  countries.  There  are  a  half-dozen  species  indigenous  to  the 
United  States.  The  Dutchman's  Pipe  (A.  Sipho),  is  a  species  in  common 
cultivation,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  hardy.  Propagated  by  layers,  cut- 
tings of  the  roots,  or  of  the  green  shoots  planted  under  glass. 

Artocarpus  (Bread  Fruit).—  A  genus  of  evergreen  tropical  trees, 
requiring  a  high  temperature  to  insure  a  healthy  growth  and  perfection 
of  their  fruit.  The  true  Bread  Fruit  (A.  incisa),  is  sometimes  cultivated 
for  its  ornamental  foliage,  but  the  fruit  seldom  reaches  maturity,  except 
in  the  tropics.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  all  difficult  to  propagate 
under  artifical  conditions.  Cuttings  and  suckers  may  be  utilized  for  this 
purpose,  but  do  not  grow  very  readily  or  freely. 

Asimina  (Papaw,  Custard  Apple). — A  genus  of   North  America- 
trees  and  shrubs  of  the  order  Anonacecc  or  Custard  Apple  Family, 
The  large  Papaw  (A.  trilobd),  is  a  well-known  small  tree,  extending 
from  Lake  Erie,  in  the  north,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  in  the  south. 


SELECT  LISTS  OF   PLANTS.  255 

Propagated  by  seeds  and  layers  put  down  in  autumn.  Seedlings  usu- 
ally spring  up  in  great  abundance  about  the  wild  plants,  but  are  some- 
what difficult  to  make  live  unless  transplanted  while  young  and  of 
email  size. 

Athrotaxis. — A  small  genus  of  Tasmanian  evergreen  trees  and 
shrubs,  belonging  to  the  Coniferce.  Rather  tender,  but  will  no  doubt 
succeed  in  the  Southern  States.  Propagated  by  seeds,  when  these  can  be 
obtained,  otherwise  by  cuttings  under  glass. 

Atragene.— See  Clematis. 

Aucuba  (Golddust  Tree).— Evergreen  deciduous  shrubs  from  Japan 
and  the  Himalayas.  The  pistillate  plants  bear  very  showy  fruit  or 
berries,  but  these  are  not  usually  obtained  in  the  absence  of  artificial 
fertilization  of  the  flowers.  Where  ornamental  berries  is  the  special 
object  in  the  cultivation  of  these  plants,  specimens  of  both  sexes 
should  be  grown  in  the  same  house,  and  the  pistillate  flowers  carefully 
fertilized  with  pollen  from  the  staminate,  applying  it,  as  usual,  with  a 
fine  camel's-hair  pencil.  All  the  varieties  are  readily  propagated  by  cut- 
tings of  the  green  or  half-ripened  wood,  planted  in  sand,  or  almost  any 
kind  of  light  soil. 

Azalea. — A  genus  of  evergreen  and  deciduous  shrubs,  all  very  orna- 
mental and  exceedingly  popular  for  both  greenhouse  and  garden  culture. 
The  North  American  and  European  species  have  been  hybridized,  and 
from  these  hybrids  an  immense  number  of  varieties  produced,  many  of 
which  are  far  superior  to  any  of  the  parent  species.  These  hybrids,  and 
the  seedling?  therefrom,  are  known  under  the  popular  name  of  "  Ghent 
Azaleas."  The  Chinese  Azaleas  (A.  sinensis),  from  both  China  and  Japan, 
are  slowly  deciduous,  the  foilage  remaining  on  the  plants  until  late  in 
the  autumn,  but  all  are  nearly,  or  quite,  hardy  in  our  Northern  States. 
Of  this  species  there  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  cultivated  in  Japan, 
and  recently  introduced  into  our  gardens  under  the  name  of  A.  Mollis  or 
soft-leaved.  The  Indian  species  ( A.  indica),  are  evergreen  and  usually 
tender,  although  an  occasional  variety  may  survive  in  the  open  air  if 
given  a  little  protection  in  winter  ;  they  are  generally  cultivated  un- 
der glass,  but  do  not  require  a  very  high  temperature.  The  evergreen 
varieties  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots,  taken 
off  with  a  heel  or  close  to  the  old  wood,  and  then  placed  in  sand,  and  in 
a  close  frame  in  the  house.  The  deciduous  varieties  are  propagated  by 
layers,  divisions  and  by  veneer  graftings  in  summer  under  glass.  (See 
Selecting  Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Azara. — A  genus  of  graceful  half-hardy  shrubs  from  South  America. 
The  flowers  are  mostly  yellow,  with  an  aromatic  fragrance.  Propagated 
by  ripened  cuttings  placed  in  moderate  heat,  and  under(  glass  in  cool 
climates,  and  in  simple  frames  without  artifical  heat  in  warm  climates. 

Baccharls  (Groundsel  Tree).—  A  genus  containing  shrubs,  trees,  and 
herbaceous  plants,  but  none  of  any  special  value  or  interest  to  culti- 
vators of  plants.  There  are  two  shrubby  species  found  along  our  coast, 


256 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS, 


from  Connecticut  southward,  the  most  common  being  known  as  the 
Groundsel  tree  (B.  halimifoha).  Propagated  by  seed  and  ripe  wood 
cuttings. 

Banksia. — A  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs,  native  of  Australia,  and 
cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  foliage.  There  are  a  large  number 
of  species  cultivated  in  European  gardens,  where  they  are  employed  for 
table  decorations  and  for  ornamenting  rooms  on  festive  occasions.  Prop- 
agated by  well-ripened  cuttings,  separated  carefully  below  a  joint,  and 
then  planted  in  sand  without  removing  any  but  the  lower  leaves.  Only 
moderate  heat  is  required,  and 
the  air  in  the  frames  should  not 
be  too  confined  or  moist. 

Benthamia.  —  A  genus  of 
shrubs,  of  the  order  Cornacece, 
and  by  botanists  it  is  now  re- 
ferred to  as  the  genus  Oornus 
(Dogwood).  Of  the  two  species 
in  cultivation,  the  B.  Japonica 
is  the  most  hardy,  but  the  lead- 
ing shoots  suffer,  more  or  less, 
every  winter  in  my  grounds. 
Propagated  by  seeds  and  layers, 
or  by  grafting  on  the  Dogwood. 

Berberidopsis.  —  An  ever- 
green, half -climbing  shrub  from 
Chili ;  closely  related  to  the  com- 
mon Barberry.  Propagated  by 
seeds,  green  cuttings,  and  layers 
of  mature  shoots  and  branch  es 

Berberis  (Barberry). — A 
genus  of  many  species,  mostly 
evergreen,  erect  or  trailing 
shrubs.  A  few  species  are  de- 
ciduous, like  the  common  Euro- 
pean Barberry  (B.  vulgaris),  and 
the  American  (B.  Canadensis). 
Increased  by  seeds,  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood  in  autumn,  by  layers, 
and  some  of  the  evergreen  species  by  cuttings  of  the  subterranean 
branches.  The  seeds  of  the  species  indigenous  to  cool  climates  should 
be  washed  from  the  pulp,  mixed  with  sand  and  buried  in  the  ground 
out-doors  over  winter,  and  sown  in  a  half  shady  place  in  spring,  as  the 
young  plants  are  very  sensitive  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  when  they 
first  appear  above  ground.  (See  Ilex). 

.Betula  (Birch). — A  genus  of  about  thirty  species  of  graceful  decid- 
uous trees  and  shrubs.  Fully  one-third  of  the  known  species  are  found 
in  North  America,  and  some  of  them  extending  far  north  ward.  Flowers 


WHITE  BIRCH  LEAF  AND   CATKINS. 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  257 

appear  before  or  with  the  leaves — sexes  in  separate  catkins  ;  the  males 
long  cylindrical,  as  shown  in  figure  95  (common  White  Birch) ;  the 
females  similar,  but  more  dense  or  shorter ;  both  drooping  when  nearly 
mature.  Seeds  small,  nut-like,  winged.  The  species  are  usually  propa- 
gated by  seed,  which  ripen  early  in  autumn,  and  may  be  kept  dry  over 
winter  and  sown  very  early  in  spring ;  or  they  may  be  preserved  in  moist 
sand  and  stored  in  a  cold  place  to  prevent  fermentation.  The  seed-bed 
should  be  shaded,  also  the  young  seedlings,  until  they  are  a  few  inches 
high.  The  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  when  a  year  old.  Varieties 
are  readily  increased  by  budding  and  grafting  .upon  seedling  stocks  in 
the  nursery.  (See  Selecting  Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Btgnonia,  (Trumpet-Flower). — A  very  large  genus  of  climbing 
shrubs,  mostly  natives  of  warm  climates ;  consequently  requiring  the 
protection  of  a  greenhouse  when  cultivated  in  cold  ones.  In  most  of 
our  recent  botanical  works  the  species  are  separated  and  those  with  a 
certain  form  of  flower  are  called  Tecomas,  and  the  other  Bignonias.  The 
latter  is  the  most  common  name,  and  applied  indiscriminately  to  the 
species  in  cultivation.  Our  common  will  Trumpet-creeper  of  the  Mid- 
dle States  (Tecoma  radicans),  is  a  good  type  of  the  Tecomas  ;  while  the 
Southern  evergreen  Trumpet-creeper  (Bignonia  caprcolata),  may  be  taken 
as  a  type  of  the  true  Bignonias.  All  are  readily  propagated  by  seed, 
cuttings,  layers,  and  some  of  the  hardy  species  from  cuttings  of  the 
larger  roots.  The  evergreen  species  may  be  increased  by  cuttings  of  the 
half-ripened  shoots  placed  in  sand  under  a  bell  glass  or  in  close  frames 
in  a  greenhouse. 

Borbonia.— Ornamental  tender  shrubs  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
bearing  handsome,  pea-shaped  flowers.  Increased  by  cuttings  of  the 
half-ripened  shoots  taken  off  late  in  winter  and  planted  in  sand  and  kept 
in  only  moderate  heat. 

Boronta.—A  genus  of  ornamental  greenhouse  shrubs,  mostly  from 
New  Holland.  They  only  require  moderate  heat  and  should  be  planted 
out  in  summer.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  half -ripened  wood 
placed  in  a  frame  and  given  plenty  of  air,  with  a  temperature  not  above 
sixty  degrees,  and  only  sufficient  water  to  prevent  wilting. 

Souvardla. — A  small  genus  of  slender  evergreen  shrubs  indigenous 
to  Mexico  and  South  America.'  They  are  extensively  cultivated  for  cut- 
flowers  during  the  winter  months.  There  are  both  single  and  double 
flowering  varieties  and  of  various  colors,  from  brilliant  scarlet  to  the 
purest  white.  They  are  all  rather  difficult  to  propagate  by  cuttings  of 
the  shoots,  but  are  readily  and  rapidly  increased  by  cuttings  of  the  roots. 
To  obtain  the  latter,  an  old  plant  or  one  of  good  size  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  pot,  the  soil  shaken  off,  and  the  roots  divided  into  pieces 
about  one  inch  long.  These  cuttings  should  then  be  placed  in  shallow 
boxes  filled  with  sand  or  sandy  loam,  and  covered  about  one-half  inch 
deep.  Apply  water  sufficient  to  settle  the  soil,  and  set  aside  for  a  week 
or  two  where  they  will  receive  but  moderate  heat  while  the  callus  and 


258  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

buds  are  forming-.  The  boxes  may  then  be  placed  in  a  position  where 
the  cuttings  will  get  a  little  bottom  heat,  which  will  force  out  the  buds 
and  sprouts.  When  the  young  plants  are  of  sufficient  size  to  handle 
readily,  they  may  be  potted  oil,  using  two  or  three  inch  pets.  The  time 
to  make  root-cuttings  is  after  the  plants  have  ceased  flowering,  or  when 
they  are  in  a  semi-dormant  state,  as  they  usually  are  during  the  latter 
part  of  winter.  Cuttings  of  the  young  terminal  and  side  shoots,  when 
about  two  inches  long,  are  in  the  best  condition  for  striking,  and  if 
placed  in  pure  sand  in  close  frames,  or  under  bell  glasses,  the  larger 
proportion  can  be  made  to  grow,  but  the  plants  are  so  easily  propagated 
by  root-cuttings  that  our  florists  depend  mainly  upon  this  mode  for  in- 
creasing their  stock  of  Bouvardias. 

Broussonetia  (Paper  Mulberry). — Only  one  species,  of  which  there 
are  several  varieties  in  cultivation.  All  low-growing  trees  from  China. 
Propagated  by  seed,  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood  taken  off  in  the  Ml 
and  stored  during  winter  .in  a  moderately  warm  place.  Also  increased 
by  layers,  suckers  and  cuttings  of  the  rools. 

Suxus  (Box  Tree). — A  genus  of  well-known,  hardy  evergreen  trees 
and  shrubs.  There  are  many  varieties  in  cultivation,  all  of  which  thrive 
best  in  a  light,  well-drained  soil.  Propagated  by  seed,  cuttings  and 
layers.  Green  cuttings,  taken  from  the  plants  in  summer  and  placed  in 
frames  and  shaded  duiing  the  he.it  of  the  day,  produce  roots  quite  freely, 
and  in  a  few  days.  Ripe  wood  cuttings,  taken  off  in  the  fall  and  placed 
in  boxes  in  a  cool  greenhouse,  will  usually  become  well  rooted  by  the 
following  spring.  Some  of  the  varieties  grow  quite  readily  by  cuttings 
planted  in  the  open  ground  in  spring,  but  the  soil  should  be  packed 
firmly  about  the  ba:e  of  the  cuttings  to  insure  the  production  of  roots. 

Callicarpa  (French  Mulberry).— Handsome  little  shrubs,  cultivated 
for  their  ornamental  berries.  A  genus  of  only  five  species— one  Ameri- 
can, one  from  Japan,  two  from  India,  and  one  from  China.  Propagated 
by  seed,  divisions,  or  cuttings  o2  the  young  shoots  in  spring,  placed 
under  a  bell  glass  in  a  grcenhou&3  or  in  close  frames  where  they  will 
receive  a  littla  bottom  heat. 

Callistemon, — Handsome  greenhouse  shrubs,  most  of  the  species 
being  native  of  New  South  Wales.  Propagated  by  seed  when  it  can  be 
obtained,  but  the  best  flowering  plants  are  raised  from  the  ripe  wood — 
the  cuttings  placed  in  pure  sand  in  frames  or  under  a  bell  glass. 

Callttris. — A  small  genus  of  tender,  evergreen  trees,  closely  allied 
to  the  Arbor-vitses,  but  with  very  long,  slender,  joint  d  branches.  Propa- 
gated by  seed,  and  cuttings  of  the  branches  taken  off  in  the  autumn  and 
kept  in  a  cool  greenhouse  through  winter,  or  stored  in  a  frame  where 
they  will  not  freeze. 

Calluna  (Heather,  Ling).— A  genus  of  the  Heath  family,  indigenous 
to  Europe  and  to  rather  limited  areas  in  North  America.  Propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  green,  tender  shoots  planted  in  pure  sand  under  glass. 
To  secure  the  best  cuttings,  the  plants  should  be  grown  in  the  house 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  259 

and  the  cuttings  taken  when  the  new  shoots  are  of  a  proper  length  to 
make  cuttings  two  to  three  inches  long. 

Calothamnus. — Tender  evergreen  shrubs  of  the  "  Myrtle  Family," 
natives  of  West  Australia.  Flowers  bright  scarl.t.  Propagated  by  cut- 
tings of  the  young  shoots,  when  they  have  become  somewhat  firm,  placed 
in  sand  in  a  frame.  The  air  should  noi  b3  kept  too  moist,  as  there  is 
danger  of  the  cuttings  damping  off. 

Calycanthiis  (Sweet  Scented  Shrub).— A  genus  of  hardy  shrubs, 
all  indigenous  to  the  United  States.  Readily  increased  by  seeds,  divi- 
sions, and  cuttings  of  the  subterranean  stems  and  branches. 

Camellia  (Tea  Plant,  Etc.) — Evergreen  shrubs  and  trees  from  China 
and  Japan.  One  of  the  species,  C.  theifcra,  and  its  varieties,  yields  the 
tea  of  commerce.  The  single  varieties  are  propagated  by  seed,  layers, 
and  cuttings  of  the  green  twigs  planted  in  sand  in  frames  or  under  bell 
glasses.  Cuttings  of  the  season's  growth,  taken  off  in  the  autumn  and 
planted  in  frames  in  a  cool  greenhouse,  will  usually  become  rooted  by 
the  following  spring ;  but  green  cuttings  are  usually  preferred,  as  they 
strike  root  in  a  few  weeks,  if  at  all.  The  double  varieties  are  propagated 
by  veneer  grafting  under  glass.  The  grafted  plants  should  be  placed  in 
close  frames  and  frequently  watered  overhead  until  the  cions  have 
united. 

Capparis  (Caper  Tree). — An  extensive  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs, 
of  no  especial  value  except  the  one  species,  C.  spinosa,  which  yields  the 
Caper  of  commerce.  It  is  a  native  of  Southern  Europe,  Western  Asia, 
Egypt  and  North  Africa,  and  is  said  to  be  hardy  in  the  Southern  coun- 
ties of  England  ;  hence,  it  will  probably  thrive  in  the  open  air  in  some 
of  our  Southern  States.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood  hi 
sand,  under  glass. 

Caragana  (Siberian  Pea  Tree).— All  small,  hardy,  deciduous  shrubs, 
with  one  exception.  The  C.  arborcscens  of  Siberia  grows  to  a  height  of 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  its  native  country,  but  ten  feet  would  be 
considered  an  extra  strong  growth  in  this  country.  Propagated  by 
seed,  layers,  cuttings  of  the  roots,  and  by  grafting  the  low  growing 
species  and  varieties  on  the  seedling  stocks  of  the  C.  arborescens.  If  the 
seeds  are  kept  dry  over  winter,  they  will  need  to  be  slightly  scalded  or 
steeped  in  tepid  water  for  a  few  days  before  sowing  in  spring. 

Carptnus  (Hornbeam).—  A  genus  of  hardy,  deciduous  trees,  mostly 
of  small  size,  but  with  veiy  tough  and  hard  wood.  The  species  are 
propagated  by  seeds,  which  are  hard  and  nut-like,  and  germinate  very 
irregularly.  Some  will  grow  the  following  spring  after  sowing,  others 
remaining  dormant  until  the  second  year.  Owing  to  this  uncertainty  as 
to  the  time  of  germination,  it  is  always  best  to  sow  the  seed  in  the  fall 
as  soon  as  ripe,  and  in  a  position  where  the  bed  can  be  freely  watered 
during  the  following  summer,  even  if  but  a  few  plants  should  appear. 
But  if  none  are  seen  by  the  time  warm  weather  sets  in,  the  entire  surface 


260  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

of  the  bed  may  bo  covered  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches  with 
chaff,  moss,  hay  or  some  similar  material,  that  will  keep  the  soil  moist, 
thereby  saving  the  labor  of  applying  water.  Early  the  following  spring 
the  bed  should  be  uncovered.  All  kinds  of  seeds  that  do  not  usually 
germinate  until  the  second  season  may  be  safely  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Carya  (Hickory,  Pecan  Nut). — Well-known,  valuable,  deciduous 
trees,  all  natives  of  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  species,  like  the  Pe- 
can tree  and  Shell-bark  Hickory,  yield  very  delicious  and  valuable  nuts, 
which  are  always  in  demand  for  home  use  and  export.  The  cultivation 
of  these  noble  and  valuable  trees  has,  no  doubt,  been  greatly  retarded 
by  the  prevalence  of  an  erroneous  idea  in  regard  to  the  supposed  diffi- 
culty or  uncertainty  attending  the  transplanting  of  either  young  or  old 
trees.  This  very  absurd  idea  has  been  repeated  and  disseminated  by 
men  holding  high  positions,  but  who  could  not  possibly  have  had  any 
practical  experience  in  raising  or  cultivating  such  trees.  These  theorists 
usually  recommend  the  planting  of  the  nut  where  the  trees  are  intended 
to  remain,  which  is  not  necessary  any  more  than  it  is  to  plant  the  seeds 
of  our  common  fruit  trees  in  such  positions.  The  excuse  for  this  kind 
of  permanent  planting  is,  that  the  Hickories  do  not  produce  a  sufficient 
number  of  fibers  to  insure  safety  in  transplanting.  If  Hickory-riuts  are 
planted  in  a  stiff  clay,  or  any  other  kind  of  hard,  compact  soil,  they  will 
ssnd  down  one  or  two  long,  naked  tap-roots,  but  if  placed  in  light,  rich 
sand  or  loam  they  will  produce  a  large  number  of  fibrous  roots,  and  may 
be  transplanted  with  as  much  certainty  of  living  afterwards  as  any  nut- 
bearing  tree  known.  I  speak  from  experience,  and  not  hearsay,  in  this 
matter.  In  propagation,  select  the  fresh  nuts  in  autumn,  and  mix  with 
light  soil  or  sand,  and  place  in  heaps  in  the  open  ground,  or  in  boxes 
with  good  drainage.  Early  in  spring,  or  as  soon  as  the  nuts  show  signs 
of  sprouting,  take  them  out  and  drop  in  rows,  placing  the  nuts  two  to 
four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and  the  rows  four  feet  apart.  Cover  the 
nuts  with  about  an  inch  of  soil.  If  the  seed-bed  is  light,  poor  sand,  so 
much  the  better,  but  add  old,  well-rotted  stable  manure  in  liberal 
quantities  to  the  surface,  as  a  mulch.  In  the  fall,  or  early  the  following 
spring,  take  up  the  seedlings,  either  with  a  spade  or  with  a  tree-digger, 
and  if  they  have  long  tap-roots,  they  should  be  shortened  to  about  one- 
half  their  original  length,  or  a  little  more.  If  this  is  done  in  the  fall, 
and  in  a  cold  climate,  the  plants  should  be  heeled  in  and  well  pro- 
tected from  cold,  and-  left  in  this  position  until  the  following  spring, 
when  they  should  be  set  out  in  nursery  rows,  and  in  heavier  soil  than 
recommended  for  a  seed-bed,  placing  them  fifteen  to  twenty  inches 
apart  in  the  row,  and  the  rows  at  a  distance  that  will  admit  of  cultiva- 
tion with  plow  and  cultivator.  The  trees  may  remain  in  the  nursery 
rows  until  four  or  five  feet  high,  then  removed  to  the  place  where  they 
are  to  remain  permanently.  While  it  is  true  that  transplam  ing  usually 
temporarily  checks  the  elongation  of  the  stem,  the  number  of  i-oots  will  be 
greatly  increased,  and  the  plants  Mill  not  only  become  more  bulky,  but  in 
a  far  better  condition  for  making  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  in  after 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  261 

years.  Where  there  is  no  danger  of  the  nuts  being  disturbed  by  vermin, 
or  of  the  soil  becoming  packed  and  hard  during  the  winter,  the  nuts 
may  be  planted  out  in  rows  as  soon  as  gathered  in  autumn,  but  my  pre- 
ference is  for  spring  planting  in  a  recently-plowed  and  freshly-prepared 
bed  for  all  kinds  of  nuts  and  seed.  Propagating  the  Hickories  by 
budding  and  grafting  has  never  been  practised  with  any  very  great 
success  anywhere,  and  when  I  first  published  a  description  of  and 
named  the  Kale's  Paper-shell  Hickory-nut,  in  1870,  I  doubt  if  there  was 
a  grafted  tree  of  tha  Hiskory  in  this  country.  The  making  known  the 
existence  of  this  unique  and  valuable  variety,  has  prompted  many 
nurserymen  and  other  persons  to  try  their  skill  in  grafting  these  trees, 
and  while  their  success  has  not  been  great,  still  grafted  Hickory  trees 
are  no  longer  unknown,  or  so  very  rare.  The  greatest  success,  thus  far, 
has  been  obtains  1  by  grafting  under  glass,  using  small  stocks  that  have 
been  growing  at  least  one  year  in  pots.  For  out-door  grafting,  and  in 
cool  climates,  terminal  grafting  is  best,  either  using  a  splice  without  a 
tongue,  or  by  cutting  away  one  side  of  the  cion  and  thrusting  it  under 
the  bark  at  the  apex  or  top  of  the  stock.  Wrap  with  Bass,  and  cover  with 
grafting  clay,  and  over  this  a  little  moss,  and  then  enclose  the  whole  in  a 
hood  male  of  oil  paper,  leaving  it  on  until  the  cion  shows  unmistakable 
signs  of  growth.  The  object  of  enclosing  in  oil  paper  is  to  prevent  the 
evaporation  of  moisture,  and  drying  of  the  clay  and  cion.  The  wood  or 
twigs  used  for  cions  should  be  taken  from  the  tree  early  in  winter,  and 
buried  in  moist  sand  or  packed  in  sphagnum,  and  stored  in  some  cool 
place,  where  they  will  remain  in  a  perfectly  dormant  condition  until  they 
are  wanted  for  use.  The  grafting  should  not  be  done  until  the  leaves 
on  the  stocks  have  begun  to  open.  The  great  difference  in  the 
density  of  the  sap  of  the  stock  and  the  cion  will  insure  a  rapid  flow 
into  the  latter.  There  is  another  mode  of  propagating  the  Hickory, 
which  may  be  practised  when  necessary  to  preserve  or  increase  the 
number  of  any  choice  or  rare  variety.  This  is  done  by  exposing  the 
roots  to  light  and  air,  thereby  forcing  them  to  produce  buds  and  sprouts. 
It  is  well  known  that  Hickory  roots,  large  or  small,  when  exposed  to  the 
light  and  air,  will  soon  produce  buds  and  sprouts  on  the  exposed  surface. 
This  tendency  of  Hickory  roots  to  produce  sprouts  from  adventitious 
buds  ma}r  be  taken  advantage  of  in  the  propagation  of  valuable  natural 
varieties.  The  lateral  surface  roots,  at  some  distance  from  the  main 
stem— five,  ten  or  twenty  feet,  according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  tree- 
should  be  expossd  to  the  light  and  air  early  in  spring,  by  removing  the 
soil  above  them  for  a  space  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  leaving  them  in 
this  condition  the  entire  summer.  Sometimes  no  sprouts  will  appear 
the  first  season,  and  the  exposure  will  need  to  be  continued  during  the 
succeeding  one,  or  until  they  do  appear.  Then  the  main  root  on  which 
the  sprouts  have  grown  may  be  severed  on  the  side  nearest  the  stem  of 
the  tree,  and  then  carefully  lifted  and  followed  outward  until  enough 
fibers  or  small  roots  are  secured  to  ensure  the  life  of  the  young  tree 
when  transplanted.  Better  formed  plants  may  be  secured  by  allowing 


262 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


the  sprouts  to  remain  for  a  year  where  they  have  grown,  after  severing 
the  root ;  and  if  fine,  rich  soil  is  thrown  in  around  the  base  of  these 
sprouts,  new  fibers  will  usually  appear  during  the  season,  and  when  the 
plants  are  removed  less  of  the  old  or  main  root  will  be  needed  to  ensure 


Fig.  98.— HICKOBT  WITH  HOOT  SPROUTS. 

growth  after  transplanting.  In  figure  93  a  Hickory  tree  is  shown  with  a 
number  of  forced  sprouts  from  the  roots  in  position. 

Cassandra  (Leather  Leaf).— A  genus  of  small  native  shrubs,  closely 
allied  to  the  Andromsdas,  and  of  the  "  Heath  Family."  Usually  propa- 
gated by  layers  or  dividing  the  plants  as  taken  from  the  bogs  and  low 
grounds,  where  they  are  to  be  obtained  in  abundance. 

Cassia  (Senna).— A  genus  of  some  two  hundred  species  of  shrubs 
and  herbs.  Very  few  of  the  species  are  in  cultivation,  or  are  they  of  any 
special  interest.  All  are  readily  propagated  by  seed.  The  ligneous 
species  may  be  increased  by  cuttings  of  the  half-ripened  shoots  under 
glass. 

Castanea  (Chestnut). — A  genus  of  a  few  species,  but  of  many  varie- 
ties. Propagated  by  planting  the  nuts  as  soon  as  ripe  in  the  autumn,  or 
preserving  them  in  sand  and  stored  in  a  cold  place  until  spring, 
then  planting  as  directed  for  Hickory-nuts.  Varieties  are  increased 
by  grafting  on  seedling  stocks— splice  grafting  being  the  preferable 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  2G3 

mode,  and.  it  should  not  be  done  in  spring  until  the  sap  in  the  stock  is 
flowing  rapidly  and  the  buds  have  pushed  almost  into  leaf.  The  cions 
should  be  in  a  dormant  state  when  inserted,  and  held  in  place  with  waxed 
manilla  paper,  as  waxed  cloth  does  not  allow  of  rapid  expansion  of  the 
stock  when  growth  begins,  and  there  is  danger  of  strangulation.  (For 
Stocks,  see  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Catalpa  (Indian  Bean).— A  genus  of  handsome,  rapid  growing  trees 
and  shrubs.  Cultivated  for  ornament,  and  the  very  durable  wood  of  the 
larger  growing  speeiefe.  Propagated  by  seed  preserved  dry  during  win- 
ter and  sown  in  spring  lightly  covered  with  fine,  rich  soil.  The  Catalpas 
may  also  be  readily  propagated  by  grafting  in  spring,  and  by  cuttings 
of  the  one  year  old  wood,  made  in  the  fall  and  buried  below  the  reach 
of  frost  in  the  open  ground,  or  they  may  be  preserved  in  a  cool  cellar 
and  then  planted  out  in  nursery  rows  early  in  spring.  The  Catalpa  will 
not  grow  from  root-cuttings,  as  has  been  repeatedly  stated  in  books  on 
forestry  and  the  propagation  of  plants. 

Ceanothus  (New  Jersey  Tea). — An  interesting  genus  of  low-grow- 
ing, pubescent  shrubs,  with  small  but  pretty  flowers.  Of  the  twenty  or 
more  species,  all  are  natives  of  North  America.  Propagated  by  cutting's 
of  the  ripe  wood  taken  off  in  the  autumn,  and  by  layers.  Some  of  the 
species  may  be  propagated  by  root-cuttings  placed  in  a  position  where 
they  will  form  buds  during  the  winter  months. 

Cedrus  (Cedar).— A  small  genus  of  cone-bearing  trees,  the  Cedar  of 
Lebanon  being  the  best  known  and  most  familiar  representative.  The 
species  are  propagated  by  seed,  sown  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  very 
close  and  compact  cones,  and  in  a  half-shady  position  in  a  cool  green- 
house, or  in  frames  in  warm  climates.  The  seeds  will  remain  sound  for 
many  years  if  left  enclosed  in  the  cones,  but  soon  lose  their  vitality  after 
removal.  Varieties  are  usually  propagated  by  veneer  grafting  under 
glass,  late  in  summer  or  early  spring,  using  strong,  pot-grown  seedlings 
for  stocks. 

Celastrus  (Staff  Tree,  Bitter-Sweet). — A  genus  of  climbing,  decidu- 
ous and  evergreen  shrubs,  cultivated  for  their  ornamental  foliage  and 
fruit.  All  the  species  readily  propagated  by  seed,  layers,  or  cuttings  of 
the  mature  shoots. 

Ccltis  (Nettle  Tree). — A  small  genus  of  mostly  hardy,  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubs.  The  North  American  species  are  the  largest,  but  not 
of  any  special  value.  Propagated  by  seed  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  and  by 
layers  when  the  trees  branch  so  low  down  as  to  admit  of  this  mode  of 
propagation. 

Cerasus  (Cherry,  Laurel,  Etc.) — A  large  genus  of  shrubs  and  trees, 
mostly  deciduous ;  but  there  are  two  European  and  one  American 
species  with  persistent  evergreen  leaves.  Propagated  by  seed  sown  as 
soon  as  ripe,  or  stored  in  moist  sand ;  also  by  budding  and  grafting.  (See 
Prunus  and  Cherry,  under  head  of  Fruit  Tree  Stocks). 


264 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 


Ceratiola.—A  low-growing  evergreen  shrub  of  the  order  Empetmcece, 
native  of  South  Carolina  and  Florida.  Thrives  in  dry,  sandy  soil.  Propa- 
gated by  seed  or  green  cuttings  under  glass. 

Ceratonia  (Carob  Tree).— An  evergreen  tree  bearing  pea-shaped 
flowers,  succeeded  by  long  pods  containing  a  sweet  tasted,  mucilaginous 
,ulp.  Propagated  by  ripe  wood  cuttings  planted  in  frames,  or  from 
Jreshly  gathered  seed. 

Cerctdtphylliun. — A  slender,  rapid-growing,  hardy,  deciduous 
tree,  introduced  about  twenty  years  ago  from  Japan  under  the  name  of 
C.  japonica.  It  has  small,  smooth,  heart-shaped  leaves,  of  a  purplish 
color  while  young.  Propagated  by  green  cuttings,  made  of  the  tips  of 
the  twigs  during  the  summer,  planted  in  sand  in  a  close  frame  in  a  propa- 
gating house.  I  have  found  that  the  cuttings  strike  root  more  readily 
if  slightly  dried  or  wilted  before  they 
are  placed  in  the  frames.  The  leaves 
should  be  cut  away,  leaving  only  two 
or  three  of  the  terminal  ones. 

Cercis  (Judas  Tree,  Ptedbud).— A 
genus  of  three  species,  one  each  in 
America,  Europe,  China  and  Japan; 
the  former  two  small  trees  growing 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  high,  the  latter  a 
stocky  shrub  six  to  eight  feet.  Propa- 
gated by  seeds  kept  in  moist  sand  over 
winter,  and  by  layers. 

Chamcecyparts  (Cypress,  White 
Cedar,  Etc.) — An  extensive  genus  of 
coniferous  trees,  according  to  the  re- 
cent re-arrangement  and  classification 
of  the  Conifcrce.  It  is  represented  in 
this  country  by  three  species :  the 
White  Cedar  (C.  tJiyoides),  the  Lawson 
Cypress  (C.  Lawsoniana),  and  Nootka 
Sound  Cypress  (C.  Nulkacnsls)  of  the 
Pacific  Coast.  The  Rctinlspora,  or 
Japan  Arbor-vitoes,  are  also  included  in 
this  genus.  Propagated  by  seed,  layers, 
and  cuttings  of  the  smaller  twigs  and 
branches  taken  off  in  the  autumn  and  planted  in  frames,  or  in  a  cool 
greenhouse  where  they  will  callus  slowly ;  then  given  a  little  higher 
temperature  to  force  out  the  roots.  Some  of  them  produce  roots  readily 
and  freely,  while  others  under  the  same  treatment  will  remain  fresh  and 
sound  for  a  year  before  any  roots  will  be  emitted.  This  difference  may 
often  be  observed  in  the  varieties  of  a  species,  as  well  as  in  the  different 
species.  With  both  the  varieties  of  a  species,  as  well  as  species  which 
are  found  to  be  difficult  to  propagate  by  cuttings  taken  from  plants  in 


Fig.  97. 

CUTTING  OF  EETINISPORA. 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  265 

the  open  ground,  the  most  certain  mode  is  to  pot  a  few  plants  and  place 
them  in  a  greenhouse,  and  after  they  have  made  a  new  growth  of  two 
or  three  inches  take  off  the  young,  succulent  tips  of  the  branches  for 
cuttings,  planting  them  in  sand  under  bell  glasses,  or  in  a  close  frame, 
where  they  can  be  given  bottom  heat,  applying  water  overhead  daily 
with  a  syringe  or  watering  pot,  through  a  fine  rose.  Cuttings  of  the 
species  commonly  known  as  Retlnispora  plumosa  may  be  made  of  the 
size  and  form  shown  in  ligure  97.  Varieties  may  also  be  propagated  by 
grafting,  using  closely  allied  species  for  stock.  Veneer  grafting  under 
glass  is  the  best  mode. 

Chilopsts  (Desert  Willow). — A  genus  represented  by  one  species, 
indigenous  to  Texas  and  westward  to  Southern  Calif omia.  A  slender- 
growing,  small  tree,  bearing  Bignouia-like  flowers.  Readily  propagated 
by  seed,  or  by  ripe  wood  cuttings,  planted  in  the  open  ground  in  warm 
climates,  or  under  glass  in  cold  ones. 

CJiionanthus  (White  Fringe  Tree).— Hardy,  native,  deciduous 
shrubs,  cultivated  for  then*  pure  white,  fringe-like  flowers.  Propagated 
by  seeds  sown  in  the  autumn  as  soon  as  ripe  ;  by  budding  and  grafting 
on  the  common  Ash.  (See  Fraxin,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Choisya. — Only  one  species,  and  this  (native  of  Mexico)  a  beautiful 
shrub,  hardy  only  at  the  South.  Propagated  by  ripened  cuttings, 
planted  in  a  half-shady  position  and  in  rather  light  soil. 

Chrysobalanus  (Coco  Plum).— Small  semi-tropical  shrubs  bearing 
edible  fruit.  Two  species  indigenous  to  Florida.  Propagated  by  seed 
and  cuttings  of  the  mature  branches,  planted  in  a  half-shady  position 
and  given  plenty  of  water  overhead  during  dry  weather. 

Citrus  (Orange,  Lemon,  Shaddock). — Semi-tropical  evergreen  trees, 
bearing  in  their  improved  state  edible  fruit.  Propagated  by  seed,  bud- 
ding and  grafting  in  the  open  air  in  warm  climates,  but  in  cool  ones 
under  glass,  and  usually  by  veneer  grafting.  (See  Fruit  Stocks.) 

Cladrastts  (Yellow- Wood,  Virgilia). — A  genus  of  only  two  species 
of  large,  free-growing,  deciduous,  ornamental  trees.  One  species  is 
indigenous  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  (C.  tinctoria),  and  the  other 
(C.  amurcmis)  to  the  Amoor  regions  of  Asia.  Propagated  by  seeds  sown 
in  spring  or  autumn,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  roots  prepared  in  the 
autumn  and  packed  in  moss  or  clean  sand  and  stored  in  a  cool  cellar 
until  spring. 

Clerodendron. — A  large  genus,  mostly  tropical  and  semi-tropical 
shrubs  and  vines,  bearing  bright-colored  flowers  in  long,  terminal  pan- 
icles. Some  of  the  most  showy  species  require  a  high  temperature ; 
others  will  thrive  in  an  ordinary  greenhouse,  while  one  Japanese  species 
is  said  to  be  hardy  in  England.  Propagated  by  seed  sown  as  soon  as 
ripe  ;  by  cuttings  of  the  somewhat  mature  wood  in  close  frames. 

Clethra  (White  Alder,  Pcpperidge,  Etc.) — Ornamental,  deciduous 
shrubs,  two  or  three  species  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  and  often 


266  PROPAGATION"  OF   PLANTS. 

cultivated  in  gardens.  The  foreign  species  are  mostly  tender  in  the 
North,  although  a  recently  introduced  Japan  species  ( C.  larbincrvis],  is 
moderately  hardy.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  division  of  the  clumps, 
and  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood. 

Cleyera.—  Handsome  evergreen  shrubs  blooming  in  spring ;  flowers, 
white,  or  yellowish-white ;  fragrant.  One  species  from  Japan  and  the 
other  from  Jamaica.  Not  hardy  in  our  Northern  States.  Propagated 
from  green  cuttings. 

Codiceum,  (Croton). — A  small  genus  of  omamental-foliagcd,  ever- 
green shrubs,  natives  of  tropical  countries  ;  consequently  require  a  Ligh 
temperature  to  insure  health  and  vigorous  growth.  There  is  an  im- 
mense number  of  varieties  in  cultivation,  all  of  which  have  probably 
descended  from  less  than  a  half  dozen  species.  They  are  more  com- 
monly cultivated  under  the  generic  name  of  Croton,  and  are  now  very 
popular  for  decorative  purposes.  Propagated  by  seed  to  produce  new 
varieties,  and  these  by  cuttings  of  the  ends  of  the  leading  shoots  and 
branches  planted  in  sand,  in  frames  or  under  bell  glasses,  giving  strong 
heat  and  a  confined,  moist  atmosphere. 

Colutea  (Bladder  Senna).— A  genus  of  a  few  species  of  ornamental, 
deciduous,  hardy  shrubs,  with  pea-shaped,  yellowish  flowers,  and  seeds 
in  bladdery  pods ;  hence,  the  common  English  name.  Propagated  by 
seeds,  or  ripe  wood  cuttings  taken  off  in  the  autumn  and  treated  as 
usual  with  mature  wood  cuttings. 

Comptonia  (Sweet  Fern). — Only  one  species,  the  C.  asplenifolia,  a 
very  common  and  familiar  low-growing  shrub,  with  fragrant,  fern-like 
foliage.  It  is  seldom  cultivated.  Propagated  by  dividing  the  clumps, 
and  by  layering  in  autumn. 

Cordta. A  genus  of  about  two  hundred  species  of  tropical,  ever- 
green trees  and  shrubs,  two  of  which  are  found  indigenous  or  naturalized 
along  the  southern  border  of  the  United  States.  A  few  of  the  species 
are  cultivated  as  greenhouse  shrubs  in  European  gardens.  Propagated 
by  soft  or  mature  cuttings  under  glass. 

Corema  (Portugal  Crakebcrry).—  Small,  low-growing,  Heath-like 
shrubs.  Only  two  species  in  the  genus.  Flowers,  dioecious.  One 
species  indigenous  to  our  Northeast  Coast  and  Newfoundland,  the 
other  to  Southwestern  Europe.  Propagated  by  cuttings  taken  off  in 
summer  and  planted  under  glass. 

Cornus  (Dogwood,  Cornel).— A  genus  of  about  twenty-five  species, 
all  but  one  belonging  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  more  than  half 
of  these  indigenous  to  the  United  States.  They  are  mostly  hardy,  decid- 
uous shrubs  and  small  trees  ;  rarely  herbs.  A  few  of  the  species  and 
then-  varieties  cultivated  for  ornament  and  their  edible  fruit ;  among  the 
latter,  the  European  Cornel  (C.  mas.}  is  a  familiar  shrub  in  gardens. 
The  American  Flowering  Dogwood  (C.florida)  is  a  conspicuous  tree  in 
oui-  forest  in  early  spring.  A  weeping  variety  (C.  florida pcndula),  and 


SELECT   LISTS  OF   PLANTS.  267 

a  red  flowering-  (C.f.  pwyured),  have  recently  been  discovered  and  are 
now  being  extensively  propagated  by  nurserymen  by  grafting-  and  bud- 
ding on  seedling  stocks  of  the  species.  Grafting  these  varieties  in  the 
open  air  is  somewhat  uncertain,  although  by  using  cions  composed  of 
two-year-old  wood  for  the  splice  or  wedge,  and  a  short  section  of  one- 
year-old  with  a  bud  above,  moderate  success  may  be  obtained.  But  the 
best  mode  of  grafting  is  with  the  veneer  graft,  under  glass,  on  pot-grown 
stocks,  in  August.  I  much  prefer  budding  in  the  nursery  on  stocks  that 
have  been  headed  back  in  spring,  inserting  the  buds  on  the  new  growth 
of  the  season,  and  performing  the  operation  as  late  in  summer  as  pos- 
sible, and  yet  before  the  stocks  have  ceased  growing.  To  hasten  the 
development  of  the  buds  on  the  parent  tree,  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the 
young  shoots  a  week  or  two  before  the  buds  are  wanted  for  use.  All  of 
the  species  of  the  Dogwood  are  readily  propagated  by  seed,  layers,  and 
some — like  the  "  Red  Osier  Dogwood  " — may  be  readily  increased  by 
cuttings  of  the  mature  wood. 

Corylus  (Hazelnut,  Filbert).— A  small  genus  of  hardy  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubs,  bearing  edible  nuts.  Two  small,  low-growing 
species  are  natives  of  the  United  States,  but  they  are  seldom  cultivated. 
The  European  and  Asiatic  species  have  yielded  an  almost  innumerable 
number  of  varieties ;  the  best  of  these  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
Old  World,  and  sparingly  so  in  this  country.  Propagated  by  seed,  or  the 
nuts  preserved  in  sand  over  winter,  as  I  have  already  directed  for  other 
kinds  of  nuts ;  by  suckers,  which  usually  spring  up  in  great  abundance 
about  the  stems ;  by  layers,  and  occasionally  by  budding  and  grafting. 
Cuttings  of  the  young  shoots  of  the  season,  made  in  the  fall  and  stored 
in  moist  sphagnum  or  sand  through  winter,  will  grow  quite  freely,  if 
planted  in  a  warm,  well-drained  soil. 

Cotoneaster.—  Hardy  shrubs  and  small  trees,  with  small  white  or 
pinkish  flowers,  succeeded  by  ornamental  berries  late  in  autumn.  There 
are  about  fifteen  species,  a  few  of  the  number  evergreen  in  mild 
winters.  Propagated  by  seed,  layers,  or  grafting  on  the  Quince. 

Cratcegus  (Thorn,  Hawthorn).— A  genus  of  some  thirty  species, 
mostly  hardy,  deciduous  shrubs  and  trees  ;  about  one-half  the  number 
are  North  American.  The  double-flowered  Hawthorns  are  popular  orna- 
mental trees,  propagated  by  budding  and  grafting  on  seedling  stocks. 
To  raise  seedlings,  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  when  ripe,  and  placed 
where  the  pulp  surrounding  the  seed  will  soften,  but  not  ferment  and 
heat.  Then  mix  pulp  and  seed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  pure  sand,  work- 
ing over  the  heap  until  both  are  thoroughly  intermingled.  Place  all  in 
boxes  with  good  drainage,  and  on  the  north  side  of  some  building,  or 
where  the  box  will  be  in  the  shade,  bank  up  and  cover  over  with  soil. 
The  box  and  seed  may  remain  in  this  position  until  the  autumn  of  the 
next  year  ;  then  the  seed  may  be  taken  out  and  sown  in  shallow  drills, 
covering  them  from  one  to  two  inches  deep,  dropping  a  seed  every  two 
inches  if  sown  in  single  drills,  or  about  the  same  distance  apart  if  sown 


268  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

ID  broad  drills  or  beds.  As  Hawthorn  seeds  do  not  usually  gro\V 
until  the  second  season  after  sowing,  it  is  always  preferable  to  keep 
them  in  a  position  where  water  can  be  given  when  needed  in  dry 
weather,  than  to  sow  them  fresh  and  run  the  risk  of  having  them  injured 
by  drouth  the  following  summer.  When  only  a  small  quantity  is  to  be 
sown,  they  may  be  placed  in  the  seed-bed  as  soon  as  the  pulp  is  softened, 
and  the  bed  kept  heavily  mulched  during  the  ensuing  summer— the 
mulching  removed  in  the  spring  of  the  second  season.  The  main  thing 
to  be  observed  is,  to  keep  them  moist  and  cool  until  the  time  arrives  for 
their  germination.  When  the  seedlings  are  one  year  old,  they  should  be 
taken  up  and  transplanted  into  nursery  rows,  as  usually  practised  with 
other  kinds  of  stocks. 

Croton.— See  Codiceum. 

Cryptomeria,  (Japan  Cedar). — Slender,  tall-growing,  coniferous 
evergreen  trees,  indigenous  to  Japan.  Two  species  are  usually  recog- 
nized by  botanists,  but  there  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation. 
Scarcely  hardy  in  the  Northern  States,  but  an  occasional  specimen  sur- 
vives, when  planted  in  a  dry  soil,  and  in  a  sheltered  position.  Propa- 
gated by  seeds  and  cuttings  of  half-ripened  wood,  and  planted  in  sand 
under  glass. 

Cunninghamia  (Chinese  Fir). — Only  one  species,  the  C.  Sinensis. 
A  broad,  lance-leaved  evergreen  coniferous  tree,  of  a  very  graceful 
habit,  not  hardy  in  the  Northern  States,  but  often  cultivated  as  a  low 
bush,  and  protected  in  winter.  Propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Cupresstis  (Cypress). — Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  with  small  scale- 
like  leaves,  mostly  compressed  and  rubricated  in  four  rows  on  the  rather 
slender  branchlets.  There  are  several  species,  natives  of  the  west  coast, 
but  none  quite  hardy  in  the  Northern  Atlantic  States.  Propagated  by 
seeds  and  cuttings. 

Cydonia  (Quince,  Pints  Japonica).— Well-known,  hardy,  decidu- 
ous trees  and  shrubs.  The  common  Quince  ( C.  vulgans),  is  cultivated 
for  its  highly-flavored  fruit,  and  the  Japan  Quince  ( C.  Japonica),  and  its 
varieties,  for  their  very  showy  flowers,  appearing  in  early  spring.  Some 
of  the  latter  produce  very  large  and  spicy-scented  fruit.  The  propaga- 
tion of  the  common  Quince  is  usually  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood 
taken  off  in  the  autumn,  and  after  the  cuttings  are  made,  they  are 
buried  in  a  dry,  warm  place  in  the  open  ground,  or  in  a  moderately  cool 
cellar,  and  planted  out  in  spring.  The  cuttings  may  be  made  from  the 
one-year-old  wood,  and  from  this  age  to  that  of  four  or  five  years  old. 
Layering  the  branches  is  also  often  practised  as  a  mode  of  propagation  ; 
also  banking  up  of  the  sprouts  that  appear  around  the  base  of  old 
stocks,  which  have  been  headed  back  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
these  sprouts.  Varieties  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  budding  and 
grafting,  using  inferior  sorts  or  seedlings  for  stocks.  The  Japan  orna- 
mental varieties  are  readily  increased  by  cuttings  of  the  young  wood  of 
vie  season,  taken  after  the  frost  has  killed  the  leaves  in  the  fall,  but  the 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  269 

most  rapid  and  certain  mode  is  by  cuttings  of  the  roots  made  in  the  fall, 
kept  in  sand  or  moss  over  winter,  then  sown  in  drills  early  in  spring. 
The  Chinese  Quince  ( C.  Chinensis),  is  a  very  distinct  species,  bearing-  fruit 
of  an  enormous  size,  but  it  is  scarcely  edible.  Propagated  by  seed,  or 
grafting  on  stocks  of  the  common  Quince. 

Cyrtlla. — A  genus  of  two  species  of  evergreen  trees  ;  one  species  is 
found  in  the  Southern  States,  and  the  other  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America.  Readily  propagated  by  seed  and  cuttings  planted  in  the 
open  ground  in  the  South,  or  under  glass  in  the  North. 

Cyttsus  (Scotch  Broom,  Etc.). — A  large  genus  of  low,  slender- 
branched  shrubs,  bearing  pea-shaped  flowers.  All  indigenous  to  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  many  of  the  species  are  known  under  such 
local  names  as  Scotch  Broom,  Irish  Broom,  Spanish  Broom,  etc.  The 
hardy  species  are  readily  increased  by  seeds  and  layers,  and  the  tender, 
or  those  cultivated  in  the  greenhouse,  by  cuttings  of  the  tender  shoots 
planted  in  close  frames,  or  under  a  bell  glass. 

Dacrydlum  (Tear  Tree). — A  genus  of  handsome  coniferous  ever- 
green trees,  from  New  Zealand,  Tasmania  and  New  Caledonia.  All 
tender,  except  in  the  extreme  South.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
mature  twigs  planted  in  sand  under  glass,  and  by  seed  when  it  can  be 
obtained  hi  a  fresh  state. 

Daphne  (Spurge  Laurel,  Mezereon). — A  highly-prized  genus  of  low- 
growing  evergreen  and  deciduous  shrubs.  Some  of  the  species,  like 
the  common  Mezereon  (D.  mezereum),  and  the  Garland  Flower  (D. 
Cncorwri),  have  been  cultivated  in  this  country  for  many  years  ;  but 
there  are  many  other  species,  fully  as  hardy  and  valuable,  that  are 
rarely  or  never  seen  in  our  gardens.  All  thrive  best  in  a  half-shady 
position,  as  the  leaves  are  likely  to  burn  during  the  hot  weather  in  sum- 
mer. Propagated  by  seed,  when  these  can  be  obtained,  by  layers,  cuttings 
and  grafting  ;  the  stronger-growing  being  used  as  stocks.  D.  Cneorum 
is  one  of  the  very  best  of  the  hardy,  low-growing  species  for  cultivation 
in  this  country,  and  it  may  be  increased  by  layers  put  down  in  spring,  or 
by  cuttings  of  the  ends  of  the  young  shoots  obtained  from  young  plants 
forced  in  winter,  or  even  from  cuttings  of  the  nearly  matured  wood,  if 
taken  off  early  in  the  fall  and  planted  in  a  greenhouse  where  they  will 
receive  only  moderate  heat— not  much  above  fifty-five  or  sixty  degrees 
while  the  callus  is  forming.  Veneer  grafting  on  stocks  grown  in  pots 
is  the  best  mode,  as  with  other  evergreen  shrubs. 

Darwinia.—  Handsome  evergreen  shrubs,  indigenous  to  Australia. 
Flowers  large  and  showy,  either  red  or  white,  produced  in  terminal 
fascicles.  Cultivated  in  greenhouses  in  cold  climates.  Propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  young  succulent  roots  placed  in  a  close  frame. 

Dasyltron  (Lily  Tree). — A  genus  of  tall-growing  dio3cious  ever- 
green shrubs,  natives  of  Mexico,  and  only  hardy  at  the  South,  but 
they  are  fine,  showy  plants,  adapted  to  greenhouse  culture,  although 


270  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

rather  large  unless  kept  well  cut  back.  Propagated  by  seeds  and 
cuttings. 

Datura  (Stramonium). — A  genus  of  shrubs,  trees  and  annuals.  A 
few  of  the  species,  like  D.  Arborca  (or  Jtrugmansia  Candida  of  some 
authors),  and  D.  mctdoidcs  from  California,  are  cultivated  for  their  large 
tube-shaped  flowers  or  showy  foliage.  Propagated  by  seed ;  and  the 
shrubby  species  and  varieties  by  cuttings,  which  strike  root  quite 
readily  under  glass. 

Decumaria. — A  handsome  climbing  shrub,  -with  white,  sweet- 
scented  flowers.  Indigenous  to  the  Carolina s  and  Florida.  Eeadily 
propagated  by  layers  and  cuttings.  The  latter  should  be  made  in  sum- 
mer, and  planted  in  the  shade,  and  given  plenty  of  water. 

Desfontatnea. — A  Holly-like,  evergreen  shrub,  native  of  the 
mountains  of  Chili.  Said  to  be  hardy  in  England.  Propagated  by 
cuttings,  planted  either  in  li^ht  loam  or  sand  under  glass. 

Dsutzia. — Well-known,  hardy,  dreciduous  shrubs  of  easy  culture. 
Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  shoots  of  the  season,  made  in  the 
autumn  and  stored  in  a  cool  and  moist  place ;  planted  out  in  spring. 
For  the  slender-growing,  dwarf  species,  like  the  D.  tjracilis,  green  cut- 
tings are  preferable,  taken  from  plants  forced  under  glass  in  winter. 
These  green  cuttings  should  be  taken  off  with  a  heel,  or  close  to  the 
old  stem,  and  then  set  in  close  frames ;  they  will  strike  root  in  a  very 
few  days. 

Diervilla  (Weigela).— A  genus  of  hardy,  deciduous  shrubs,  with 
showy,  funnel-shaped  flowers,  varying  in  color  from  pure  white  and 
yellow  to  deep  rosy  purple.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  species  and 
their  varieties  are  far  move  common  in  cul  ivation  than  our  two  indig- 
enous species,  viz.,  D.  trifida  and  D.  scssiliflom.  Propagated  very 
readily  by  either  ripe  wood  cuttings  in  the  open  air,  or  green  wood 
under  glass. 

Dlmorphanthus.  —See  Aralia. 

El(eagnus  (Oleaster,  Wild  Olive).— A  small  genus  of  evergreen 
and  deciduous  shrubs.  One  species,  the  E.  argentca,  is  a  native,  and 
sometiniss  cultivated  ;  also  one  or  two  species  from  Europe  and  Japan. 
Propagated  by  seed,  layers  and  root-cuttings. 

Ellloitia. — A  genus  of  only  three  species,  one  indigenous  to  our 
Southern  States,  and  two  are  found  in  Japan.  The  first  is  a  deciduous 
slirub,  growing  four  to  ten  feet  high,  bearing  small,  white  flowers  in 
terminal  racemes,  resembling  those  of  the  Andromeda.  Propagated  by 
soft  wood  cuttings  under  glass. 

Epacris. — Small  evergreen  shrubs  and  trees,  mostly  from  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  Australia  and  Polynesia.  All  are  tender,  and  require  the 
protection  of  a  warm  greenhouse  in  winter,  but  may  be  planted  out  in 
summer.  They  are  highly  valued  for  the  great  number  of  flowers  which 
appear  during  the  winter  months.  Pteadily  propagated  by  cuttings  of 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  271 

the  tips  of  the  growing  shoots,  taken  off  during  the  winter,  and  planted 
in  a  close  frame  with  bottom  heat. 

Erica  (Heath).— An  extensive  genus  of  nearly,  or  quite,  four 
hundred  species  of  evergreen  shrubs,  with  small  and  slender  branches. 
A  large  majority  of  the  species  are  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  are  tender  in  cool  climates.  There  are,  however,  a  few  species  native 
of  Europe,  and  hardy,  but  they  require  a  moist  soil  and  a  rather  shady 
position.  The  Heaths  are  very  popular  plants,  and  extensively  culti- 
vated in  European  gardens  and  greenhouses,  but  seldom  seen  in  any 
large  numbers  in  this  country,  as  they  require  special  care  and  attention 
in  order  to  produce  fine,  healthy  specimen  plants.  Propagated  by  seed 
for  producing  new  varieties,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  ends  of  the  mature 
twigs,  also  from  the  young  growth  of  what  are  called  the  soft-wooded 
species.  The  cuttings  should  be  short — not  more  than  two  inches  long, 
and  one-half  this  length  will  answer  equally  as  well.  Very  clean  sand 
should  be  used  in  which  to  set  the  cuttings  of  these  plants,  and  the  pots 
or  boxes  given  good  drainage. 

Erythrlna  (Coral  Tree).  —A  genus  of  about  thirty  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  bearing  showy  pea-shaped  flowers.  They  are  principally  natives  of 
tropical  countries.  One  species  (E.  herbaceci),  with  slightly  woody  stem, 
indigenous  to  our  Southern  States.  The  flowers  of  all  the  species  are 
coral-red,  scarlet  or  copper  colored,  hence  the  common  name  of  "  Coral 
tree."  The  Cockscomb  Coral  tree,  from  Brazil  (C.  Crista-galli),  is  the  best 
known  and  most  common  species  in  cultivation  in  this  country.  The  plants 
are  usually  stored  in  a  warm  cellar  or  cool  greenhouse  during  winter, 
and  planted  out  in  summer.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young 
shoots  as  they  start  in  spring,  taken  off  with  a  heel,  and  planted  where 
they  will  receive  a  little  bottom  heat. 

Eucalyptus  (Australian  Gum  Tree,  Fever  Tree). — An  immense 
genus  of  very  large,  broad-leaved  evergreen  trees,  mostly  natives  of 
Australia.  Specimen  trees  of  some  of  the  species  are  said  to  have  been 
found  in  the  forests  of  Australia  that  are  over  four  hundred  feet  high, 
with  stems  more  than  fifty  feet  in  circumference.  The  Blue  Gum  tree 
(E.  globulus),  has  been  planted  quite  extensively  in  California  as  a  timber 
tree,  and  also  in  the  malarious  districts  of  Italy,  where  it  is  said  to  have 
a  beneficial  effect  in  checking  malarial  fevers.  Propagated  by  seeds  im- 
ported from  Australia,  and  which  usually  grow  very  readily.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  shallow  boxes,  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  when 
only  a  few  inches  high. 

Euonymus  (Burning  Bush,  Spindle  tree). — A  genus  of  ornamental, 
deciduous  and  evergreen  shrubs  and  small  trees.  The  flowers  are 
mostly  small  and  inconspicuous,  but  in  several  of  the  species  they  are 
succeeded  by  very  brilliant-colored  berries  remaining  on  the  plants  until 
late  in  autnmn.  Of  the  evergreen  Japanese  species  (E.  Japonicus,  E. 
rad-icans,  etc.},  there  are  sevaral  variegated-leaved  varieties  in  cultivation, 
some  of  them  requiring  protection  during  the  winter  in  our  Northern 


272  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

States,  whilo  others  are  quite  hardy.  The  deciduous  species  are  propa- 
gated by  seed  and  ripe  wood  cuttings,  and  the  evergreen  varieties  by 
cuttings  of  the  young  wood  under  glass.  They  may  also  be  propa- 
gated by  layers,  but  cuttings  produce  the  best-formed  plants.  The  large 
fruited  and  broad-leaved  Euonymus  (E.  latifolius),  is  usually  propagated 
by  budding  and  grafting  on  stocks  of  the  larger-growing  species,  and 
the  low,  trailing  species  may  also  be  grafted  on  the  same  kind  of  stocks, 
the  evergreen  thriving  on  the  deciduous. 

Euphorbia  (Milk wort, Poinsettia,  Etc.) — An  immense  genus  of  several 
hundred  of  species  of  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs,  the  greater  part  abounding 
in  a  milk-like  juice,  often  containing  on  acrid  and  poisonous  principle, 
others  containing  valuable  medicinal  properties.  The  flowers  are  small, 
unisexual  and  crowded  in  numbers  at  the  ends  of  the  main  shoots.  A 
few  shrubby  species  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses,  usually  under  the 
name  of  Poinsettias,  the  bright-colored  bracts  surrounding  the  umbel  of 
flowers  being  used  for  decorative  purposes.  The  winter-blooming, 
tropical  species  require  a  high  tsmperature  to  insure  full  development 
of  the  showy,  leaf-like  bracts.  Propagated  by  cuttings,  and  they  strike 
root  freely  in  a  temperature  of  about  seventy-five  to  ninety  degrees. 

Eurya. — A  small  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  from  China  and  Japan. 
A  variegated-leaved  variety  of  lalifolia  is  occasionally  cultivated  as  a 
half-hardy  shrub  in  our  Northern  States.  Propagated  by  green  cuttings 
under  glass. 

Exochorda  (Large-flowered  Spiraea). — A  very  large,  hardy  decidu- 
ous shrub,  introduced  about  twenty-five  years  ago  from  China,  under  the 
name  of  Spircea  grandiflora,  but,  owing  to  its  being  difficult  to  propa- 
gate, it  has  not  as  yet  become  common.  Green  cuttings  taken  from 
plants  forced  in  a  greenhouse  strike  root  more  or  less  freely,  but  the 
usual  practice  is  to  splice  graft  cions  of  the  ripe  wood  on  pieces  of  the 
roots,  then  plant  in  hot-beds  or  in  boxes  in  a  moderately  warm  green- 
house. It  is  also  reported  that  in  France  ripe  wood  cuttings  planted 
early  in  fall  in  the  open  ground  strike  root  quite  readily. 

Fabiana. — A  neat  little  shrub  with  white  flowers,  and  a  well-known, 
common  greenhouse  plant.  Propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings. 

Fag  us  (Beech). — A  genus  of  large  and  valuable  timber  and  orna- 
mental trees.  All  are  deciduous  except  two  or  three  species  found  in 
South  America,  but  of  which  little  is  known.  The  triangular-shaped 
nuts  are  well  known  among  the  people  of  both  Europe  and  America. 
Propagated  by  seed,  which  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  it  is  taken 
from  the  tree,  or  stored  in  moist  sani  and  in  a  cool  place  through  winter. 
Varieties  are  propagated  by  layers,  and  by  budding  and  grafting  in  the 
open  air.  In  grafting,  the  cions  should  be  set  low  down,  and  as  near 
the  roots  as  convenient  for  working  handily. 

Faratnea. — A  neat  little  evergreen  shrub  from  the  West  Indies. 
Cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  its  white,  fragrant  flowers,  which  are  about 
the  size  of  those  of  the  Cape  Jasmine.  This  species  (F.  odoratissima),  is 


SELECT   LISTS   OF    PLANTS.  273 

known  by  various  names,  such  as  Coffea  occidentales,  Ixora  Americana, 
etc. 

Ficus  (Fig  Tree).— A  very  large  and  important  genus  of  evergreen 
shrubs'  and  trees.  One  species,  the  F.  Carica,  yields  the  cultivated  figs 
so  well  known  to  all  civilizeJl  and  to  many  barbarous  nations.  Another 
species,  the  F.  elastica,  yields  a  part  of  the  India-rubber  of  commerce, 
while  another,  F.  Indica,  is  the  celebrated  Banyan  tree  of  India. 
The  varieties  of  the  common  Fig  and  India-rubber  tree  are  readily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  of  the  green  wood  or  mature  shoots  planted  in  rather 
coarse  sand  or  pulverized  brick,  in  the  open  ground  in  warm  climates, 
and  under  glass  in  cool  ones. 

Fltzroya. — A  coniferous,  evergreen  tree  from  Patagonia,  with  the 
habit  of  the  Weeping  Cypress.  Only  one  species  in  cultivation,  the  F. 
Patagonica,  and  this  is  far  from  being  common.  Propagated  by  seeds 
and  cuttings  of  the  half -matured  twigs  and  leading  shoots  under  glass. 

Fontanesia.—  Large  and  handsome  ornamental  shrubs,  closely  re- 
lated to  the  common  Olive  tree.  One  species,  from  Syria  (F.  pJiillyrce- 
oidcs),  has  long  been  cultivated  in  our  gardens,  but  the  Chinese  species 
(F.  Fortunei)  is  not  so  well  known.  Propapated  by  layers  and  cuttings 
of  the  mature  wood  under  glass. 

Forsythia  (Golden  Bell).— A  small  genus  of  handsome,  early-bloom- 
ing, hardy  shrubs  from  China  and  Japan.  Three  species  are  recognized 
in  the  late  botanical  works,  viz.,  F.  viridissima,  from  China  in  general ; 
F.  Fortunei,  from  Pekin,  China,  and  F.  suspensa,  from  Japan.  The  latter 
is  very  distinct  from  the  former  two,  having  long,  slender  branches, 
drooping  or  trailing  on  the  ground.  The  leaves  are  quite  small,  ovate, 
and  on  some  branches  all  will  be  trifoliate,  somewhat  after  the  form  of 
a  clover  leaf.  The  flowers  are  usually  of  a  bright  yellow,  appearing 
several  days  earlier  than  on  the  first-named  two ;  still,  with  this  wide 
difference  in  habit  of  growth,  size  and  form  of  leaves,  and  time  of 
blooming,  I  am  quite  certain  that  it  is  only  a  garden  variety  (or  it  may 
be  a  wild  one),  of  the  first,  or  F.  viridissima.  My  reason  for  making  this 
statement  is  that  from  a  large  number  of  seedlings  raised  from  the  seed 
of  an  isolated  plant  of  F.  suspensa,  at  least  nine  out  of  everv  ten  have 
assumed  the  upright  habit,  with  the  strong,  stout  canes  and  large,  entire 
leaves  of  the  two  first-named  species.  In  these  seedlings  we  have  an 
instance  of  reversion  to  the  original  type  of  the  most  pronounced  kind  ; 
for  there  could  not  possibly  have  been  any  crossing  or  hybridizing  with 
any  other  closely  allied  plant.  Many  of  the  seedlings  of  this  Weeping 
Golden  Bell  are  now  large,  old  plants,  so  well  established  that  their 
varietal  characters  may  be  considered  as  fully  developed.  All  the  varie- 
ties are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood,  made  in  either- 
fall  or  spring,  and  planted  in  nursery  rows. 

Fothergilla. — A  genus  of  one,  or  at  most  two,  species  of  low-grow- 
ing, deciduous  shrubs,  native  of  the  swamps  and  low  grounds  of  the 
Southern  States.  F.  alnifolia  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its  rather 


274  PKOPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

sherry,  white  flowers,  appealing  in  spring.    Propagated  by  seed  and 
layers. 

Fraxinus  (Ash). — A  genus  of  many  species,  mostly  large,  deciduous 
trees  of  cold  climates.  Highly  valued  for  their  timber,  as  well  as  for 
ornamental  purposes.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  varieties  in  cul- 
tivation. The  species  are  usually  propagated  by  seed,  which  should  be 
gathered  when  ripe,  in  autumn,  and  either  sown  immediately,  or  packed 
in  moist  sand  and  stored  in  a  cool  place,  and  then  sown  in  spring,  cover- 
ing lightly  with  rich,  loose  soil.  Sometimes  the  seeds  will  remain  dor- 
mant and  not  germinate  until  the  following  spring,  and  when  this  is 
likely  to  occur,  the  seed-bed  should  not  be  permitted  to  become  dry, 
but  given  water  or  covered  with  some  light,  chaffy  material  to  aid  in 
retaining  moisture.  The  seed  should  also  be  examined  when  gathered, 
to  see  if  they  contain  a  good,  plump  kernel,  as  seeds  on  isolated  trees 
are  often  defective  or  false,  owing  to  non-fertilization  of  the  flowers. 
Varieties  are  propagated  by  budding  and  grafting  in  the  open  air.  (See 
Chapter  XVIII.,  on  Tree  and  Shrub  Stocks.) 

Fremontia, — An  interesting,  large,  ornamental,  deciduous  shrub, 
with  yellow  flowers.  This  genus  is  closely  allied  to  the  Basswoods  or 
Lindens.  One  species,  F.  Californica,  is  known  locally  in  California  as 
"  Slippery  Elm,"  the  inner  bark  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  that  of 
the  Ulmus  fulva.  Vide  Prof.  Rothrock,  botanist  to  Wheeler's  expedi- 
tion. Propagated  by  seed  and  layers. 

Fuchsia  (Ladies'  Eardrops). — Well  known  and  popular,  tender,  orna- 
mental shrubs,  mostly  native  of  Mexico  and  South  America.  The  F. 
arborcsce)is  of  Mexico  is  said  to  grow  to  a  height  of  ten  to  twelve  feet  in 
its  native  habitats,  but  there  are  few  other  species  and  varieties  that 
exceed  five  or  six  feet.  All  are  readily  propagated  by  seeds  and  by  cut- 
tings of  the  young,  tender  shoots. 

Gardenia  (Cape  Jessamine).—  A  very  popular  genus  of  evergreen 
shrubs,  producing  sweet-scented  flowers.  The  double  flowered  variety 
of  G.  jlorida,  from  China,  has  long  been  a  favorite  greenhouse  plant  in 
our  Northern  States,  and  a  common  garden  shrub  in  the  Southern.  In 
the  South  it  is  readily  propagated  by  layers,  but  in  cool  climates  by  cut- 
tings of  the  young,  tender  shoots,  planted  in  close  frames  in  the  propa- 
gating house,  or  in  an  ordinary  warm  greenhouse. 

Garrya.—A  small  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs,  of  the  order  Cornacece 
(Dogwoods),  native  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions  and  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  young  branches  and  branchlets  are  somewhat  four-angled  ; 
fruit,  blue  or  purple.  Seldom  cultivated,  and  little  is  known  of  their 
propagation  further  than  by  seed  and  layers. 

Genista. — See  Cylisus. 

Gleditschia  (Honey  Locust,  Etc.)— A  genus  of  deciduous  trees  with 
elegant,  pinnate  leaves,  all  of  graceful  habit ;  but  most  of  the  species 
produce  simple  or  branching  thorns  of  great  strength  as  well  as  length, 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  275 

and  for  this  reason  they  are  objectionable,  and  rarely  planted  except 
for  hedges.  There  are,  however,  several  unarmed  varieties  of  the  most 
hardy  and  valuable  species,  and  these  are  well  worthy  of  general  culti- 
vation as  ornamental  trees.  The  species  are  propagated  by  seed,  sown 
as  soon  as  gathered,  and  removed  from  the  pods,  or  mixed  with  moist 
sand  and  buried  in  the  open  ground.  If  the  seeds  are  kept  dry  over 
winter  they  should  be  scalded  or  steeped  in  warm  water  for  a  day  or 
two  before  sowing.  It  is  always  advisable  to  soak  old  seeds  and  keep 
them  in  a  warm  place  until  the  sprouts  begin  to  appear,  before  sowing ; 
for,  if  they  do  not  germinate  while  in  a  warm  place  in  the  house, 
they  will  not  grow  when  sown  in  the  field.  The  varieties  may  be  propa- 
gated by  grafting  on  seedling  stocks  in  the  open  air.  (See  Chapter 
XVIII.,  Selecting  Stocks.) 

Gymnocladus  (Kentucky  Coffee  Tree).— Only  one  species,  the  G. 
Canadensis,  common  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  thriving  best  in 
rich,  moist  soils.  A  large,  deciduous,  ornamental  and  timber  tree,  with 
very  long,  bi-pinnate  leaves.  Seeds  produced  in  long,  broad  pods — large 
and  very  hard  when  mature,  requiring  the  same  or  similar  treatment  as 
those  of  the  Honey-locust.  English  nurserymen  are  said  to  propagate 
the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  by  cuttings  of  the  roots,  but  there  is  no  occa- 
sion to  resort  to  this  mode  here,  as  seeds  are  to  be  obtained  in  abundance. 

Halesia  (Snowdrop,  or  Silver-Bell  Tree). — A  small  genus  of  very 
ornamental,  deciduous  shrabs,  of  the  Styrax  Family.  Only  three  species, 
all  indigenous  to  the  Southern  States ;  one  extending  as  far  north  as 
Virginia,  but  all  hardy  in  much  colder  latitudes,  as  I  have  never  known 
them  to  be  injured  in  my  grounds  in  Northern  New  Jersey.  Propagated 
by  seeds,  layers,  and  cuttings  of  the  roots.  Seeds,  a  hard,  bony  nut, 
enclosed  in  a  persistent,  fibrous  husk.  The  seeds  do  not  usually  germi- 
nate until  the  second  year,  and  should  be  sown  where  they  can  be  kept 
moist  during  the  first  summer.  By  covering  the  seed  bed  with  mulch, 
this  condition  can  be  secured  with  but  little  trouble  or  expense.  Seeds 
self  sown,  under  Pine  trees,  in  my  grounds,  germinate  readily  without 
any  artificial  aid.  (See  Chapter  XVIII.,  on  Selecting  Stocks,  Styrax,  etc.) 

Halimodendron. — A  handsome  little  deciduous  shrub  from  Sibe- 
ria, closely  allied  to  the  Caragana,  which  see  for  propagation  ;  also  Chap- 
ter XVIII.,  Stock  for  Halimodendron. 

Hamamelis  (Witch-Hazel).— Tall,  hardy  shrubs,  of  no  especial  value 
or  beauty,  having  the  rather  singular  habit  of  blooming  late  in  fall  or 
early  winter,  and  ripening  the  seeds  the  following  autumn.  Flowers 
small,  bright  yellow,  in  clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  A  species 
has  recently  been  introduced  from  Japan  (H.  Japomcd),  also  one  variety. 
Propagated  by  seeds  and  layers.  The  Japan  species  may  be  grafted  on 
the  American,  but  it  is  rather  difficult  to  make  the  cions  unite  in  the 
open  air. 

Heltanthemum  (Rock  Rose). — An  immense  genus  of  shrubby  and 
herbaceous  plants.  The  shrubby  species  often  cultivated  in  conserva- 


276  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

tones  for  their  large  and  showy  flowers— usually  under  the  generic  name 
of  Cisttts.  The  shrubby  kinds  are  propagated  by  seed,  and  green  cut- 
tings under  glass. 

Hibisctis  (Rose  of  Sharon,  Rose-Mellow).— A  genus  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  species,  widely  distributed  around  the  world.  Mostly 
stout,  herbaceous  plants,  with  large,  showy  flowers ;  a  few  shrubby 
species,  like  the  common  garden  Althaea  or  Rose  of  Sharon  (H.  Syria- 
cws),  and  the  Rose  of  China  (H.  Rosa  Sinensis),  largely  cultivated  as  green- 
house plants  in  cold  climates.  Of  the  two  shrubby  species  named,  there 
are  a  large  number  of  varieties,  all  highly  prized  for  their  showy  flowers. 
Propagated  by  seeds,  and  cuttings  of  either  the  green  wood  under  glass, 
or  ripe  wood  in  the  open  ground.  Ripe  wood  cuttings  should  be  made 
in  the  fall,  in  cold  climates,  and  stored  where  they  will  not  freeze  during 
the  winter.  They  should  also  be  kept  rather  dry,  too  much  moisture 
being  very  injurious.  The  same  is  true  of  the  plants  raised  from  ripe 
wood  cuttings  ;  and  they  should  be  dug  up  in  the  autumn  of  the  first 
season  and  heeled-in,  either  in  a  cool  cellar  or  some  dry  place  in  the 
garden. 

Hovenia. — A  large  shrub  bearing  edible  fruit,  from  Japan  and  Nepal. 
It  is  said  that  the  fruit  tastes  somewhat  like  a  good  Pear.  The  Japan 
species  (H.  dulcis),  is  reported  to  have  produced  fruit  in  the  open  ground 
in  Philadelphia,  but  in  my  grounds  the  leaves  and  stems  are  invariably 
killed  by  the  first  hard  frost  in  autumn.  Propagated  by  seeds,  and  by 
root-cuttings. 

Hydrangea. — A  genus  of  elegant  drawf,  mostly  deciduous,  orna- 
mental shrubs.  There  are  three  shrubby  species  native  of  the  United 
States,  and  about  a  half-dozen  in  China  and  Japan.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  garden  varieties  of  the  various  oriental  species.  Propagated 
by  suckers,  layers  and  cuttings  of  the  green  and  half-ripened  wood.  Of 
some  of  the  hard  wooded  species,  like  the  Oak -leaved  (H.  qucrc-i folia), 
and  the  recently  introduced  Japan  Hydrangea  (H.  paniculata  f/randiflora), 
green  cuttings  are  most  certain,  if  taken  from  plants  forced  under 
glass. 

Hypericiun  (St.  John's-wort). — There  are  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  species  in  this  genus,  mostly  herbaceous  plants  of  little  value 
or  beauty.  Of  the  shrubby  species,  a  few  rre  cultivated  in  gardens,  among 
these  Kalm's  St.  John's-wort  (//.  Kalmlanum),  is  probably  the  most 
common.  The  hardy  species  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  division  of  the 
clumps,  and  the  tender  ones  by  green  cuttings  under  glass. 

Idesia  (Japan  Cherry). — A  handsome,  rapid-growing  fruit  and  orna- 
mental tree  from  Japan.  The  one  species  introduced—/,  polycarpa— 
has  not  proved  to  be  hardy  as  far  north  as  New  York  City,  but  thrives 
in  the  South.  Readily  propagated  by  root-cuttings  made  in  the  fall  and 
planted  out  in  the  spring. 

Ilex  (Holly). — Mostly  evergreen  shrubs  and  small  trees,  with  prickly 
leaves,  and  small  white  or  yellowish  flowers  in  axillary  clusters,  sue- 


SELECT   LISTS   OF    PLANTS. 


277 


ceeded  by  small  berry-like  fruit.  Species  of  this  genus  may  be  sought 
in  botanical  works  under  such  generic  names  as  Herberts,  Mahonia, 
Prinos  and  Myginda.  The  European  Holly  (/.  aquifolium),  and  its  many 
varieties,  is  not  hardy  in  our  Northern  States,  but  the  American *Holly 
(I.opaca),  thrives  in  sheltered  positions,  as  far  north  as  the  southern 
counties  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  Several  trees  in  my  grounds 
have  withstood  the  cold  and  produced  a  fine  crop  of  berries  during  the 
past  twenty  years.  The  European  and  true  American  Holly  are  in- 
creased by  seed,  which  should  be  gathered  late  in  autumn,  or  dur- 
ing the  winter,  and  placed  in  a  vessel  that  will  hold  water  and  kept 
wet  for  a  few  days,  then  the  pulp  washed  off  clean.  The  seed  should 
then  be  mixed  with  moist  sand,  and  exposed  to  the  cold  in  the 


Fig.  98.— CION  OF  AMERICAN  HOLLY. 

open  air,  or  sown  in  a  bed  and  covered  about  an  inch  deep,  and  the 
whole  surface  of  the  seed-bed  well  mulched.  The  seed  does  not 
usually  sprout  until  the  second  year,  and  if  allowed  to  remain  very 
dry  they  will  seldom  germinate  at  all.  Varieties  are  propagated  by 
veneer  graftings  under  glass  in  August.  The  American  Holly  is  highly 
prized  for  its  bright,  red  berries,  which  remain  upon  the  plants  all 
winter,  but  as  it  is  not  every  tree  that  produces  berries  in  abundance, 
grafting  has  recently  been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  stock  of  productive  plants  for  cultivating  in  pots,  as  well  as  in  the 
open  ground.  The  cions  for  this  purpose  should  be  taken  from  pro- 
ductive native  trees,  the  lateral  berry-bearing  twigs,  as  shown  in  figure 
98,  being  selected  for  this  purpose.  I  have  in  my  grounds  one  tree  of 
the  American  Holly,  not  less  than  thirty  years  old,  that  has  never  borne  a 


278  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

berry,  although  it  blooms  freely,  but  another  of  the  same  age,  near  by, 
is  loaded  every  season  with  its  bright  scarlet  fruit. 

IlljLcium  (Anise  Tree). — A  small  genus  of  evergreen  Anise-scented 
shrubs  of  the  Magnolia  family,  two  of  which  are  native  of  Florida,  one 
of  China  and  another  of  Japan.  Propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings  of 
the  ripened  shoots  planted  under  glass  in  warm  climates.  All  thrive 
best  in  a  moist  or  wet  soil. 

Indtgofera  (Indigo  Plant). — A  large  genus  of  annual,  perennial, 
herbaceous,  and  shrubby  plants.  A  few  of  the  shrubby  kind  arc  culii- 
vated  in  greenhouses,  as  they  are  very  ornamental  when  loaded  with 
their  red  or  purplish  flowers.  Readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
young,  tender  shoots. 

Itea  (Willow  Shrub).— A  neat  little  native  shrub  (/.  Virginica},  bear- 
ing long,  slender  racemes  of  minute,  fragrant  flowers.  Usually  found  iu 
low  grounds,  from  New  Jersey  southward,  but  thrives  in  any  good  soil, 
and  is  quite  hardy.  Propagated  by  layers  and  suckers. 

Jasmi num  (Jessamine).— Evergreen  and  deciduous  climbing  shrubs 
from  the  Old  World,  cultivated  under  glass  in  cold  climates,  but  many 
of  the  species  succeed  iu  the  open  ground  in  the  South.  Flowers  fra- 
grant, and  mostly  white  or  yellow.  Propagate .1  by  layers  and  cuttings 
of  either  the  ripened  or  green  wood. 

Jxiglans  (Walnut,  Butternut).— A  genus  of  long-known,  nut- 
bearing  trees.  The  so-called  English  Walnut  ( J.  rcgia),  is  a  native  of 
Asia,  but  has  been  cultivated  for  many  centuries  in  the  warmer  countries 
of  Europe,  and  a  large  number  of  varieties  produced.  The  Black 
Walnut  (J.  nigra),  is  one  of  our  well-known  timber  trees,  bearing  large, 
round  nuts  of  a  strong,  rank  flavor.  The  Butternut  (J.  cincrca),  is  also 
a  valuable  timber  tree,  the  nuts  oblong,  with  rough  ridges  ;•  kernel  sweet, 
pbasant  tasted,  but  very  oily.  A  closely  allied  species  to  the  last  (J. 
Cal'fornica),  is  a  native  of  California  and  Arizona,  and  one  other 
species  (J.  rupestris),  is  found  from  Arizona  to  Texas.  Propagated  by 
seed  which  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  ripe,  or  stored  in  a  cool,  moist 
place  during  winter.  If  planted  in  light  soils,  the  seedlings  produce  a 
large  number  of  fibrous  roots,  and  are  readily  transplanted  without  loss, 
but  when  grown  in  rather  firm  soils,  the  seedlings  will  produce  long, 
naked  tap-roots,  with  few  fibers.  Varieties  are  propagated  by  grafting 
by  ordinary  modes  in  the  open  ground  in  mild  climates,  but  in  cool  ones, 
out-door  grafting  is  uncertain  and  seldom  successful.  Budding  is 
preferable  to  grafting,  for  if  the  bud  fails,  the  stock  is  not  seriously  in- 
jured. The  buds  should  be  pi  amp,  rather  mature,  and  then  inserted 
into  a  rapid-growing  stock  or  branch,  through  which  the  sap  is 
flowing  rapidly  at  the  time  of  performing  the  operation.  The  English 
Walnut  is  not  quite  so  difficult  to  propagate  by  budding  and  grafting  as 
the  Hickory,  still  it  requires  care  and  skill  to  insure  success,  either  in 
the  open  air  or  under  glass. 

Juniper  us  (Juniper,  Red  Cedar). — A  large  genus  of  coniferous 


SELECT   LISTS   OF  PLiNTS.  279 

evergreen  trees  and  low  shrubs,  native  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
Wood'nne  grained,  not  resinous.  The  heart  wood  usually  of  a  reddish 
color,  and  fragrant,  and  exceedingly  durable.  Propagated  by  seeds  and 
cuttings.  The  seeds  are  very  hard  and  bony,  and  unless  the  shell  is 
softened  by  some  chemical  application  they  seldom  germinate  until 
the  second  season,  even  when  exposed  to  frost  and  kept  constantly 
moist.  The  usual  method  of  treating  the  seeds  is  to  gather  them  in 
the  fall  when  fully  ripe,  and  either  mix  with  strong,  moist  wood  ashes, 
or  pour  some  strong  potash  water  over  them,  leaving  them  to  soak  and 
soften  for  two  or  three,  days  ;  then  rub  the  berries  until  the  outer  coat 
is  removed.  A  little  sharp  sand  added  will  assist  greatly  in  cleaning 
the  seed.  Wash  out  the  sand  and  other  foreign  matter  by  placing  the 
seed  in  a  sieve  and  pouring  the  water  over  them.  Sow  immediately  in 
a  bed  in  the  open  air,  and  cover  the  seed  about  one-half  inch  deep. 
Over  the  surface  scatter  leaves,  chaff,  or  some  similar  light  material.  In 
spring  remove  the  mulch,  and  if  the  plants  appear,  protect  them  from 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but  if  they  fail  to  come  up,  cover  the  bed 
again  with  mulch,  and  leave  it  undisturbed  until  the  following  spring. 
Most  of  the  Junipers  may  bj  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young 
shoots  planted  in  sand  under  glass,  or  of  the  mature  wood  taken  oil' 
in  the  fall  and  set  in  cold  framc3,v/here  they  will  receive  only  slight  pro- 
tection during  the  winter. 

Kalmia  (Laurel,  Calico  Bush,  Spoonwood).— A  genus  of  North 
Ameriaan  evergreen  shrubs ;  only  ono  species,  the  K.  latifolia,  growing  to 
the  height  of  twenty  feet  and  over.  All  very  ornamental,  and  highly  prized 
in  Europe,  but  only  sparingly  cultivated  in  this  country.  Propagated 
by  seed  and  by  layers  abroad ;  but  wild  plants  from  the  woods  and 
fields  can  bo  obtained  to  supply  the  demand  in  this  country. 

Kerria  (Golden  Corchorus).  — One  species  in  cultivation  (K.  Ja- 
ponica),  but  of  this  there  are  several  varieties  ;  one  with  double  yellow 
flowers  is  very  common  in  gardens ;  the  single  flowered  is  more 
rare,  but  really  the  most  desirable  of  the  two.  There  is  also  a  varie- 
gated-leaved variety.  Easily  propagated  by  suckers  or  cuttings  of  the 
mature  shoots,  planted  in  the  open  ground  in  fall  or  spring. 

Kolreuteria  (Bladder-pod).— A  genus  of  one  species,  viz.,  K.  pani- 
culala  ;  a  small  tree  somewhat  resembling  the  common  Sumac,  having 
pinnate  leaves  of  numerous  leaflets.  Flowers  small,  yellow,  in  larc;e 
terminal  panicles,  succeeded  by  large  bladdery  pods,  containing  large, 
shot-like,  black  seed.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers  and  cuttings  of  the 
roots. 

Laburnum  (Golden  Chain).— The  common  Laburnum  (L.  vulgare), 
of  Europe,  is  placed  in  the  genus  Cyt-isus  by  some  botanists,  while 
others  have  separated  it  because  of  the  difference  in  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  plants,  and  the  absence  of  the  Caruncle,  which  is  present 


280  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

on  those  of  the  true  Cytisus.    Propagated  by  seels,  layers,  suckers, 
grafting  and  budding.    (See  Chapter  XVIII.,  Stocks). 

Lagerstroemia  (Crape  Myrtle).— A  splendid  genus  of  deciduous 
shrubs  from  China  and  the  East  Indies.  Flowers  with  wavy,  crisped 
petals  in  large  panicles,  and  of  a  light  red  or  white  color.  All  popular 
shrubs,  cultivated  under  glass  in  cool  climates,  and  in  the  open  air  in 
warm  ones.  Propagated  by  layers  and  by  cuttings  of  the  young,  tender 
shoots,  placed  in  a  confined,  rather  moist,  and  warm  atmosphere. 

Lantana. — Low-growing,  semi-tropical  shrubs,  producing  pink,  yel- 
low and  orange  colored  flowers  in  great  profusion.  Cultivated  ex- 
tensively for  bedding  out  in  summer.  The  plants  grow  rapidly,  and 
are  very  showy  when  planted  in  masses.  Propagated  by  cuttings  in  sand 
under  glass. 

JLarix  (Larch,  Tamarack). — Deciduous,  coniferous  trees,  thriving  best 
in  swamps,  or  cold,  moist  climates.  Valuable  timber  trees.  Native  of 
North  America,  Europe  and  Japan.  Species  propagated  by  seeds,  which 
should  be  kept  dry  over  winter,  and  sown  early  in  spring  in  a  finely  pre- 
pared seed-bed,  the  seed  to  be  but  lightly  covered  with  sand,  or  light, 
fine  leaf-mold.  The  young  plants  should  be  shaded,  either  with  lath 
screens,  or  with  branches  of  trees,  until  they  are  two  or  three  months  old, 
as  they  are  liable  to  be  burned  off  by  the  hot,  scorching  rays  of  the  sun 
in  our  climate.  The  seedlings  may  remain  in  the  seed-bed  until  two 
years  old,  and  then  transplanted  into  nursery  rows  early  in  the  spring. 
Varieties  and  rare  species  are  propagated  by  veneer  graf  ting  under  glass 
in  August,  or  by  cleft  and  splics  grafting  early  in  spring  in  the  open  ah'. 
The  former  mode  is  preferable,  and  the  most  certain.  (See  Stocks, 
Chapter  XVIII.) 

Laurus  (Laurel,  Bay  Tree). — The  natural  order  Lauracece  contains 
about  fifty  genera,  and  an  immense  number  of  species.  The  Cinnamon, 
Camphor  tree,  Sassafras,  Spice  Bush,  Sweet  and  Red  Bay,  are  all 
familiar  plants  of  this  great  family.  In  Europe  the  Bay  tree  (L.  nobilis) 
is  the  shrub  usually  referred  to  under  the  name  of  Laurel,  while  in  this 
country  the  shrubs  called  Laurels  do  not  belong  to  the  Laurel  Family. 
The  Laurel  or  Bay  tree  of  Southern  Europe,  and  its  varieties,  is  some- 
times cultivated  here  in  conservatories  for  their  highly  perfumed  foliage. 
Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  half-ripened  wood. 

Ligustrum  (Prim,  Privet). — Ornamental  evergreen  and  deciduous 
shrubs  from  Europe  and  Asia.  The  common  European  Privet  (L.  vul- 
garc),  is  quite  hardy  in  the  Northern  States,  where  it  is  often  planted  for 
ornamental  hedges  and  screens.  Some  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
species  are  hardy,  if  given  a  slight  protection  during  the  winter  months. 
All  the  species  are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  planted  in  the  open 
ground,  or  under  glass. 

Limonta. — Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  Citrus  Family,  requir- 
ing the  same  treatment  and  culture  as  mentioned  for  Citrus. 


SELECT   LISTS   OF  PLANTS.  281 

Ltppla  (Lemon-Scented  Verbena).— The  common  species  cultivated 
in  greenhouses,  from  Chili,  is  better  known  under  the  name  of  Aloysia 
citriodora,  but  some  of  our  botanists  consider  Lippia  as  the  proper  name 
of  the  genus.  There  are  several  other  species,  but  they  are  rarely 
cultivated. 

Liquidambar  (Sweet  Gum  Tree).— A  genus  of  one  North  American 
and  one  oriental  species.  The  first  is  a  widely-distributed,  handsome 
forest  tree  of  large  size,  with  bright  green,  star-shaped  leaves  which  usu- 
ally change  to  a  dark  red  or  crimson  color  in  autumn.  Propagated  by 
seed  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  in  the  fall,  in  very  moist  soil.  Some  of  the  seed 
may  germinate  the  following  spring,  but  they  usually  remain  dormant 
until  the  second  season,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  sow  them  where 
the  bed  can  be  watered  during  dry  weather  in  summer. 

Liriodendron  (Tulip  Tree,  White  Wood).— A  very  large  and 
widely-distributed  indigenous  forest  tree,  valuable  for  its  timber,  and 
highly  prized  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Only  one  species,  the  L.  Tulipifcra. 
Propagated  by  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  in  the  autumn,  and 
covered  about  a  half-inch  in  depth  with  leaf-mold  or  other  light 
soil.  The  seedlings  are  inclined  to  make  very  long,  slender  tap-roots, 
and  they  should  be  frequently  transplanted  while  young,  if  they  are  to 
be  moved  when  large  or  several  feet  in  height.  The  transplanting 
should  always  be  done  in  the  spring,  for  the  Tulip  tree  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  Magnolia  Family  have  rather  soft,  spongy  roots,  liable  to 
injury  from  cold  and  moisture,  if  disturbed  in  the  fall,  and,  while  seed- 
lings and  larger  trees  may  be  taken  up  and  hecled-in  and  given  protection 
during  the  winter  months,  it  is  seldom  safe  to  plant  them  out  in  nursery 
rows  or  elsewhere  in  the  fall — at  least  not  in  cold  countries. 

Lonicera  (Honeysuckle.) —A  very  extensive  genus  of  ornamental, 
upright  and  climbing  shrubs.  In  some  botanical  works,  the  species  of 
this  genus  are  separated  into  two  groups,  the  upright-growing  under  the 
above  name,  and  the  climbing  under  that  of  Caprifolium.  All,  how- 
ever, belong  to  the  Caprifoliaccce,  or  Honeysuckle  Family.  All  readily 
propagated  by  layers  put  down  in  fall,  or  early  spring,  also  by  ripe  wood 
cuttings  in  the  open  ground,  and  green  cuttings  under  glass. 

Lyctum  (Matrimony  Vine).— Numerous  species  ;  mostly  hardy,  but 
a  few  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  are  tender  and  cultivated  in  green- 
houses. The  best  known  is  the  common  Matrimony  Vine  (L.  vulgarc), 
from  Southern  Europe,  a  slightly  thorny,  half-climbing  shrub,  with  small, 
greenish-purple  flowers,  succeeded  by  red  berries.  Easily  propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  mature  one-year-old  wood,  or  by  seed. 

Lyonia. — See  Andromeda,  Cassandra,  Oxydcndrum. 

Madura  (Osage  Orange,  Bow-Wood).— A  well-known  native  tree 
of  our  Southwestern  States.  Formerly  extensively  planted  for  farm 
hedges,  the  young  branches  being  well  famished  with  strong,  sharp 
epiues.  The  best  mode  of  propagation  is  by  seed  sown  in  spring,  in 


232  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

light,  rich  soil.    To  hasten  germination  the  seed  should  be  soaked  in 
warm  water  for  two  or  three  days  before  sowing. 

Magnolia  (Cucumber  Tree,  Etc.)— A  genus  of  highly  ornamental 
deciduous  and  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  America,  China 
and  Japan.  A  few  of  the  species  grow  to  a  large  size,  and  are  valuable 
timber  trees,  notably  the  common  Cucumber  tree  (M.  acuminatd).  Prop- 
agated by  seeds,  layers,  budding  and  grafting.  The  seed  should  not 
be  allowed  to  get  thoroughly  dry,  but  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  pulpy 
covering,  be  mixed  with  sand  and  sown  immediately,  or  buried  in  boxes 
in  the  open  ground  for  the  winter ;  then  taken  out  in  early  spring  and 
sown  in  frames  where  water  can  be  supplied,  and  the  young  plants 
shaded  when  they  first  appear  above  ground.  Layers  put  down  in  early 
spring  and  notched,  or  a  tongue  made  on  the  under  side,  will  usually 
become  well  furnished  with  roots  the  first  season  ;  if  not,  they  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  a  year  longer.  Budding  is  a  rather  un- 
certain mode  of  propagation,  but  with  rapid  growing  stocks  and  plump 
mature  buds  moderate  success  may  be  obtained,  even  in  cool  climates. 
Grafting  under  glass,  employing  stocks  grown  in  pots,  is  the  most  certain 
mode  for  increasing  varieties  and  rare  species.  (See  Veneer  Grafting, 
Chapter  XVII,  and  for  Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Mahonia. — See  llsx,  Bcrberis,  Aqmfolium. 

Malvaviscus  (Scarlet  Mallow). — Evergreen  shrubs  of  the  "  Mallow 
Family,"  from  Texas  and  tropical  America.  Flowers  scarlet,  of  a 
peculiar  convolute  or  twisted  appearance,  not  opening  broad,  as  in  the 
Abutilon  and  other  closely  allied  plants.  The  most  familiar  species  is  the 
M.  arboreus,  often  cultivated  under  the  name  of  Achania  Malvaviscus. 
It  does  not  seed  freely  in  cultivation,  but  is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings 
made  of  the  short  side  shoots,  removed  with  a  heel,  or  close  to  the  old 
wood. 

Mangifera  (East  India  Mango). — Evergreen  tropical  trees,  bearing 
very  large  fruit,  that  of  some  varieties  of  delicious  flavor ;  others 
have  the  taste  and  fragrance  of  turpentine.  The  Mango  is  called  the 
"Apple  of  the  tropics,"  and  it  is  now  largely  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies  and  throughout  tropical  America.  It  is  occasionally  cultivated  in 
conservatories.  Readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripened  wood 
planted  in  sand. 

Melastoma. — A  genus  of  tropical  evergreen  shrubs,  mostly  with 
large  purple  flowers,  blooming  freely  in  summer.  The  petals  soon 
drop  when  cut  from  the  plant ;  only  a  few  of  the  species  cultivated  in 
this  country.  Readily  propagated  by  cuttings  under  glass. 

Mella  (Pride  of  India,  China  Tree).— A  genus  of  large,  handsome, 
ornamental  trees,  mostly  evergreen  and  native  of  tropical  countries. 
One  spcc-ios,  the  M.  Azsdamc7i,  a  deciduous  tree  from  Persia,  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States  under  the  name  of  China  Tree. 
The  fruit  resembles  in  size  and  form  the  common  cherry,  and  it  is  eaten 


SELECT   LISTS   OF    PLANTS.  283 

by  birds.  Propagated  by  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  in  the  fall,  or  as 
soon  as  ripe. 

Mespilus  (Medlar).— Low-growing,  hardy  trees  closely  allied  to  the 
common  Pear  and  Quince,  and  of  the  Rose  Family.  Propagated  by 
seed,  and  grafting  on  various  stocks.  (See  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Mezereum. — See  Daphne. 

Morus  (Mulberry). — A  genus  of  few  species,  but  these  extending 
around  the  world  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  They  are  principally 
trees  of  moderate  size,  but  of  great  importance  to  mankind.  The  leaves 
of  the  oriental  species  supply  the  silkworm  with  food,  the  timber  is  also 
valuable  for  fuel  and  other  purposes,  and  some  of  the  varieties,  like  the 
Downing  Mulberry,  produce  excellently  flavored  fruit.  The  species  are 
propagated  by  seed,  layers,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood  taken 
off  in  the  fall.  Most  of  the  cultivated  varieties  are  readily  increased  by 
cuttings,  but  an  occasional  one  is  found  rather  difficult  to  propagate  in 
this  way,  and  root-grafting  in  winter  or  spring  is  resorted  to  in  its  propa- 
gation. 

Myrtus  (Myrtle). — A  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  and  trees,  very  few 
cultivated  outside  of  tropical  countries.  The  common  Myrtle  ( J/.  corn- 
munis),  and  its  varieties,  are  well  known  greenhouse  shrubs.  Propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  gre§ n  shoots  under  glass. 

Negundo  (See  Acer,  Maple). 

Nerium  (Oleander). — A  genus  of  showy  evergreen  shrubs,  natives  of 
the  East  Indies  and  Southern  Europe.  There  are  but  few  species,  but 
of  the  oldest  and  best  known  there  are  many  varieties  in  cultivation. 
They  are  very  popular  greenhouse  plants,  blooming  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  Readily  propagated  by  cuttings  planted  in  sand,  and  then  kept 
moist  and  warm.  The  half-ripened  shoots  will  produce  roots,  if  the 
lower  ends  are  kept  immersed  in  water  alone. 

Nyssa  (Tupelo,  Sour  Gum  Tree). — A  genus  of  North  American  decid- 
uous trees,  usually  growing  in  moist  soils  or  near  the  borders  of  streams. 
Flowers  small,  greenish.  Fruit,  a  one-seeded  drupe,  and  in  some  of  the 
species  edible.  The  Tupelos,  although  greatly  admired  for  their  deep, 
glossy  green  foliage,  which  assumes  a  bright  crimson  color  in  autumn, 
are  rarely  seen  in  cultivation,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  the  difficulty  of  mak- 
ing transplanted  trees  live.  To  prepare  the  trees  for  safe  removal,  when 
of  good  size,  the  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  every  two  or  three 
years,  and  the  soil  above  their  roots  covered  with  mulch.  Propagated 
by  seed,  which  seldom  germinates  until  the  second  year;  and  the  seed- 
bed must  not  be  permitted  to  become  dry  from  the  time  of  sowing  the 
seed,  until  the  plants  have  appeared  and  become  well  established.  A 
safe  and  certain  mode  of  obtaining  good  plants  for  transplanting  is  to 
raise  them  in  pots  plunged  in  a  frame  in  the  open  ground. 

Olca  (Olive). — The  common  Olive  tree  (0.  Europcca)  is  the  most  im- 
portant species  of  the  genus,  yielding  the  well-known,  edible,  oily  fruit 


284=  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

of  commerce.  There  are,  however,  quite  a  number  of  species  of  trees 
and  shrubs  belonging  to  this  genus,  that  arc  well  worthy  of  cultivation 
for  ornamental  purposes,  but  not  for  their  fruit.  The  Olive  is  readily 
propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood,  old  branches  taking  root  even 
more  freely  than  the  one-year-old.  In  warm  climates,  where  the  Olive 
flourishes,  the  cuttings  are  planted  in  the  open  ground  in  the  autumn. 
In  European  countries  large  truncheons  or  cuttings  are  used  instead  of 
those  of  moderate  size  and  length,  but  for  no  better  reason  than  because 
it  is  the  general  practice  or  custom,  just  as  long  cuttings  are  used  in 
propagating  the  grape  in  the  same  countries,  instead  of  very  short  ones, 
as  in  this  country.  Chips  cut  from  an  old  Olive  tree  stem  will  readily 
produce  sprouts,  if  planted  in  a  warm  soil  and  kept  moist ;  in  fact,  the 
entire  surface  of  this  tree  will  produce  adventitious  buds  very  freely,  if 
placed  in  a  position  to  receive  heat  and  moisture. 

Osmanthus  (Japan  Holly). — A  genus  of  neat  little  evergreen  shrubs, 
of  the  "  Olive  Family,"  from  Japan.  Flowers  small,  white  and  very  fra- 
grant. Not  hardy  in  the  north,  but  often  cultivated  in  greenhouses. 
There  are  several  species  or  varieties  in  cultivation  under  such  names  as 
O.  aquifolium,  0.  fragrans,  and  0.  ilicifoliits.  Propagated  by  cuttings 
under  glass. 

Ostrya  (Iron-Wood,  Hop-Hornbeam).— Slender,  deciduous,  hardy 
trees,  with  very  firm,  hard  wood.  One  American  species,  0.  Virginica, 
and  one  European,  0.  vulgaris.  Propagated  by  seed,  layers,  and  graft- 
ing in  the  open  air. 

Oxydendrum  (Sorrel  Tree).— Only  one  species,  the  0.  arboreum, 
native  of  Ohio  and  south.  A  rather  scarce  tree,  growing  fifteen  to 
twenty,  and  even  fifty  feet  high ;  leaves  rather  acid  to  the  taste 
when  yoting ;  very  smooth,  glossy  green  when  mature,  but  in  autumn 
changing  to  a  dark  crimson  color,  even  before  they  are  touched  by  frost. 
Propagated  by  seed  sown  in  frames,  lightly  covered  with  fine  soil,  and 
kept  shaded  and  moist  until  they  germinate.  The  young  plants  are 
exceedingly  delicate,  and  require  great  care  and  attention  to  keep  them 
growing  through  the  first  season.  Layering  is  practicable,  if  strong,  old 
plants  are  headed  back  for  the  purpose  of  producing  sprouts  suitable 
for  layers,  but  roots  are  produced  very  slowly  from  layered  shoots,  how- 
ever carefully  the  operation  is  performed. 

Pceonia  (Paeony). — A  genus  of  well-known,  tuberous-rooted,  herba- 
ceous and  shrubby  plants,  with  very  large,  showy  flowers.  Mostly  natives 
of  Siberia  and  China.  One  herbaceous  species  (P.  Brownii}  indigenous 
to  California  and  northward.  Herbaceous  varieties  propagated  by  divid- 
ing the  crowns  bearing  a  terminal  bud  on  each  division  or  tuber,  as 
adventitious  buds  are  seldom  or  never  produced  below  the  crown. 
Shrubby  species  are  propagated  by  division,  layers,  and  cuttings  taken 
off  late  in  summer,  with  a  heel  or  a  piece  of  the  preceding  year's  wood 
attached,  and  planted  in  a  cool  greenhouse,  or  in  a  frame  where  they 
can  be  given  sufficient  protection  to  prevent  freezing  during  the  winter. 


SELECT   LISTS   OF    PLANTS.  285 

Grafting  is  also  practicable,  using  the  large  fleshy  roots  of  the  shrubby 
kinds,  or  tubers  of  the  ordinary  herbaceous  Chinese  Paeony.  The  trian- 
gular side  graft  is  best,  if  the  tubers  employed  are  of  large  size,  and  the 
splice  graft  on  the  roots  of  the  shrubby  kinds.  The  grafting  should  be 
done  in  early  autumn,  and  the  worked  roots  stored  in  some  place  where 
they  will  not  become  frozen.  New  varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  which 
should  be  sown  in  good  soil  as  soon  as  ripe.  They  will  germinate  the 
following  season,  but  the  entire  growth  will  be  directed  or  expended  in 
producing  roots  and  small  tubers  ;  the  cotyledons  remaining  enclosed  in 
the  shell  of  the  seed  until  the  spring  of  the  second  season.  I  have  raised 
many  hundreds  of  seedling  Poeonies,  but  never  had  one  appear  above 
ground  until  the  spring  of  the  second  season ;  I  have  always  found 
them  producing  roots  and  tubers  the  first  summer. 

Palturus  (Christ's  Thorn).— Shrubs  of  the  Rhamnaccce  or  Buckthorn 
Family.  One  species  native  of  Judaea,  another  of  Nepal.  The  former 
has  rather  slender  thorny  branches,  with  fruit  resembling  a  head  with  a 
fcroad-b  rimmed  hat  on.  Not  quite  hardy  in  our  Northern  States,  but 
often  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  the  sake  of  its  reputed  association. 
Propagated  by  layers  and  cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  latter  grow  freely 
if  stored  in  moist  sand  or  moss  during  the  winter. 

jPassiflora  (Passion-Flower). — An  extensive  genus  of  herbs  and 
climbing  shrubs,  bearing  large  and  beautiful  flowers  of  various  colors. 
A  few  of  the  larger-growing  shrubby  species,  like  the  common  Grana- 
dilla  (P.  cdulis),  and  the  large  Granadilla  (P.  quadrangularis),  produce 
edible  fruit,  as  large  as  a  lemon,  and  of  a  similar  form.  All  the  species 
and  varieties  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots  planted 
in  sand,  and  where  they  can  be  given  moderate  heat. 

Paulownia.—K  well-known  ornamental  tree  (P.  imperialis)  from 
Japan.  Its  leaves  are  of  immense  size,  rather  downy,  and  heart-shaped. 
Flowers  large,  violet-colored  in  terminal  panicles  in  spring.  The  flower 
buds  are  often  winter-killed  in  the  latitude  of  New  York  City,  but  the 
trees  arc  hardy.  Propagated  by  seed  sown  in  spring,  or  cuttings  of  the 
roots  made  in  the  fall  and  stored  in  a  moderately  warm  place  during  the 
winter. 

Phellodendron  (Cork  Tree).— A  small  genus  of  deciduous  trees  of 
the  Rutacece  or  Rue  Family,  and  closely  allied  to  our  common  Prickly 
Ash  (Zanthoxylum  Americanum).  TWO  species  have  been  introduced — 
P.  Japonicum,  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Japan,  and  P.  Amurense,  from 
the  Amoor  regions  in  Asia.  Propagated  by  layers  and  cuttings  of  the 
roots. 

Fhiladelphus  (Syringa). — A  very  popular  genus  of  ornamental 
shrubs,  natives  of  North  America,  Europe  and  Asia,  including  Japan. 
There  are  probably  less  than  a  dozen  species,  but  a  large  number  of  cul- 
tivated varieties.  Flowers  white,  and  in  some  of  the  species  sweet 
scented ;  others  inodorous.  The  common  European  varieties  have  long 
been  known  in  our  gardens  under  the  name  of  Mock  Orange,  as  the 


28G  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

flowers  of  P.  coronarius  sraell  somewhat  like  Orange  flowers.  All  readily 
propagated  by  cuttings,  layers  and  suckers. 

Phillyrea. — Ornamental  evergreen  shrubs  of  the  Olive  Family, 
natives  of  Southern  Europe  and  the  East  Indies.  Flowers  small,  white 
and  inconspicuous.  These  shrubs  are  esteemed  for  their  deep,  rich  green 
foliage.  Propagated  by  cuttings  and  layers. 

Photinia. — Evergreen  shrubs  of  sub-tropical  countries  belonging  to 
the  Rose  Family.  One  species  is  extensively  cultivated  in  warm  climates 
under  the  name  of  Loquat  tree  (Eriobotrya  Japonica  of  nurserymen's  cata- 
logues), as  it  bears  a  yellow  edible  fruit,  resembling  small  apples.  This, 
and  several  other  species  are  old  inhabitants  of  our  greenhouses.  Prop- 
agated by  cuttings  of  the  ripened  wood,  and  by  budding  and  grafting  on 
the  Quince  and  Hawthorn. 

Pinckneya  (Georgia  Bark). — A  small  evergreen  tree  of  the  Southern 
States,  closely  allied  to  the  Cinchona,  and  the  bark  is  supposed  to  con- 
tain the  same  or  similar  principles ;  hence,  the  common  name  of  the 
native  species,  P.  pubens.  Propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings  under  glass, 
but  must  be  well  supplied  with  moisture. 

Pinus  (Pine  Tree). — An  extensive  genus  of  evergreen  coniferous 
trees  and  shrubs.  Many  of  the -species,  and  some  of  the  most  valuable, 
thrive  in  soils  unfit  for  agricultural  purposes,  it  being  either  too  light 
and  dry  and  thin,  or  too  cold  and  wet.  Pine  barrens  and  Piney  swamps 
are,  as  a  rule,  the  home  of  this  genus  throughout  the  world,  although, 
upon  the  whole,  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  to  mankind.  Propagated 
by  seed  sown  in  spring  in  a  half-shady  position.  The  seed  should  be  cov- 
ered lightly  with  sandy  soil  and  kept  moist  until  the  plants  appear, 
when  these  must  be  shaded  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  given 
water  only  sufficient  to  prevent  wilting  and  drooping.  The  shading 
should  be  continued  during  the  entire  first  season,  either  with  lath 
screens,  as  shown  elsewhere,  or  with  branches  thrown  over  the  seed  bed. 
Varieties  are  propagated  by  veneer  grafting  und-ir  glass  in  August.  (See 
Chapter  XVII.) 

Pirus  (Apple,  Pear,  Etc.)— A  very  important  genus  of  the  Rosacece  or 
Eose  Family.  The  common  Pear  (P.  communis)  and  Apple  (P.  J/aZws), 
are  the  most  valuable  fruits  raised  in  cool  climates.  The  common  Quince 
( Cydonia  vulgarls)  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  Pear  thai,  it  is  used  as  a  stock 
for  many  varieties.  The  same  ma^be  said  of  the  Hawthorn  ( Crat<egus)\ 
although  belonging,  botanically,  to  a  different  genus,  they  are  sometimes 
employed  as  stocks  for  both  the  Pear  and  the  Apple ;  but,  as  I  have  said 
in  Chapter  XVIII.,  on  Selecting  Stocks,  it  is  always  best  to  employ  stocks 
as  near  related  to  the  kind  being  propagated  as  possible.  In  propagat- 
irig  the  Pear,  the  seed  should  be  washed  from  the  ripe  fruit,  or  pomace, 
while  fresh,  and  before  decay  has  proceeded  so  far  as  to  have  softened 
the  thin  shell  enclosing  the  cotyledons  or  seed  proper.  It  may  then  be 
spread  out  in  the  shade  and  dried  sufficiently  to  prevent  it  from  becom- 
ing moldy  or  heating  when  stored  in  boxes  or  bags.  Pear  seed  is  usually 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS. 


imported  dry,  but  when  received  it  may  be  mixed  with  inofet  saad,  and 
either  buried  in  the  open  ground  or  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,  until  it  is 
wanted  for  sowing  in  early  spring.  But  it  may  be  mixed  with  sand  as 
soon  as  washed  from  the  pomace,  and  then,  buried  in  the  ground,  it  will 
germinate  more  readily  and  produce  stronger  and  more  vigorous  plants 
than  seed  that  has  been  long  dried.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  single 
or  broad  drills  and  covered  not  more  than  an  inch  deep.  The  seedlings 
should  be  taken  up  when  one  year  old,  the  tap-root  shortened,  and  the 
stem  cut  back  to  within  six  or  eight  inches  of  the  ground,  before  plant- 
ing out  again.  The  following  August,  if  they  make  a  good  growth,  they 
will  be  in  good  condition  for  budding  in  the  usual  way.  The  next  spring 
they  are  to  be  cut  back  to  within  four  inches  of  the  bud,  and  all  sprouts 
kept  removed  from  the  stock  during  the  summer.  The  stocks  on  which 
the  buds  have  not  taken  may  be  splice  grafted  near 
the  ground,  in  order  to  have  the  rows  full  of  worked 
trees.  The  next  spring  the  stump  above  the  bud  may 
be  removed  with  a  clean,  upward  sloping  cut.  Some- 
times one-year-old,  and  even  older,  Pear  stocks  are 
splice  grafted  in  the  winter  and  planted  out  in  spring, 
but  this  mode  of  propagation  is  more  generally  prac- 
tised with  the  apple.  Apple  seed  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  general  way  as  those  of  the  Pear,  but  they 
grow  more  freely  and  are  far  less  liable  to  be  injured 
by  rust  in  summer  and  other  parasitic  diseases.  Root 
grafting  the  Apple,  using  one  and  two-year-old  seed- 
ling stocks,  is  extensively  practised  by  nurserymen. 
The  stocks  should  be  dug  up  in  the  fall  and  stored  in 
a  cool  cellar  or  pit,  where  they  can  te  readily  taken 
out  when  wanted  for  use.  Cions  should  also  bg  cut 
from  the  trees  of  the  varieties  to  be  propagated,  late 
in  fall  or  early  winter,  and  stored  where  they  will  not 
shrivel  or  become  softened  by  wster.  Well-ripened 
wood  of  the  present  season's  growth  is  used  for  cions, 
and  that  from  bearing  trees  is  preferable  to  shoots 
from  small  and  immature  trees.  When  ready  to  com- 
mence grafting,  the  stocks  and  cions  are  brought  into 
a  warm  cellar  or  room  and  brushed  or  washed  clean  ; 
for  if  covered  with  sand  or  earth  of  any  kind,  the 
knives  used  will  soon  become  dull,  and  good  work 
is  impossible  with  dull  tools.  Strong  manilla  paper,  coated  on  one 
side  with  wax — or  very  thin  cloth  may  be  used  if  preferred — is  cut 
into  narrow  strips  for  tying  in  the  cions.  When  the  materials  are  all 
at  hand,  proceed  with  the  work  by  splicing  a  cion  on  the  crown  of  lift 
seedling  stock,  as  shown  in  figure  99,  and  wind  the  lower  part  of  the 
cion  and  stock  with  a  piece  of  the  waxed  paper  or  cloth,  applying  only 
enough  to  cover  the  splice.  (See  Splice  Grafting  in  a  preceding  chapter). 
Sometimes  nurserymen  cut  up  the  long  slender  roots  of  seedlings  into 


Fig.  99. 

SPLICE    GRAFT- 
ING THE  APPLE. 


288  PROPAGATION  OF   PLANTS, 

several  pieces,  inserting  a  cion  on  each  ;  but  better  trees  and  a  more  vig- 
orous growth  will  be  obtained  if  the  stocks  are  entire,  or  only  the  tap- 
root and  some  of  the  lateral  ones  are  shortened,  if  of  too  great  a  length 
for  convenience  in  handling,  in  grafting  and  when  planting  out.  Two 
or  three  persons  may  work  together  at  this  root  grafting  to  considerable 
advantage  ;  for  while  one  is  cleaning  and  preparing  the  stocks,  another 
can  eut  and  insert  the  cion,  while  the  third  may  apply  the  waxed  cloth 
or  paper,  without  loss  of  time  in  laying  down  and  picking  up  knives  and 
other  implements  used  in  the  operation.  When  the  stocks  are  grafted, 
they  are  packed  away  in  moss  or  soil  and  stored  in  a  moderately  cool 
cellar,  where  the  process  uniting  cion  and  stock  will  proceed  slowly 
until  the  time  arrives  for  planting  out  in  nursery  rows  in  spring.  The 
Apple  may  be  readily  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  in  the  open  air, 
but  root  grafting  in  winter  is  preferred,  because  little  else  can  be  done  in 
the  nursery  at  this  season,  and  long  experience  has  shown  that  this  mode 
of  propagation  answers  every  purpose,  and,  upon  the  whole,  is  the 
cheapest.  In  propagation  of  the  different  species  of  the  Mountain  Ash 
(Pirus  Americana,  P.  aucuparia,  etc.,)  the  seeds  should  be  sown  where 
the  young  plants  can  be  shaded  until  they  become  well  established,  for 
in  our  hot  climate  the  young  seedlings  are  very  likely  to  be  burned  off, 
if  not  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  different  varieties 
may  be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  on  seedling  stocks  and  in  the 
open  air. 

Pittosporum  (Pitch  Tree). — Ornamental  evergreen  trees  or  shrubs, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  The  most  common  species  in  cul- 
tivatioii  is  the  P.  Tobira,  from  Japan,  bearing  small,  white,  fragrant 
flowers.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripened  shoots,  planted  in  sand 
under  glass. 

Planera  (Planer  "Eree). — A  genus  of  small  deciduous  trees  closely 
allied  to  the  Elms  ( Ulmus),  of  no  great  beauty,  but  interesting  to  the 
botanist  and  arboriculturist,  as  the  few  species  in  the  genus  are  natives 
of  widely  separated  countries  ;  for  instance,  United  States,  Japan  and 
Siberia.  Propagated  by  seed,  layers,  and  grafting  on  the  Elm.  (See 
Chapter  XVII.) 

Platanus  (Plane  Tree,  Sycamore,  Buttonwood). — A  very  limited 
genus  of  only  three  species,  two  in  the  United  States  (P.  ocddcntalis  and 
P.  racemosa),  and  one  in  Europe  (P.  orientalls).  Of  the  latter  there  are 
several  varieties  in  cultivation.  All  large,  noble,  deciduous  trees,  but 
rarely  planted  in  this  country,  although  the  European  species  and  vari- 
eties are  occasionally  seen  in  some  of  our  city  parks.  Propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood,  taken  off  in  the  fall,  and  bulled  in  the  ground, 
aj)d  planted  in  low,  moist  soil  the  following  spring. 

Podocarpus. — A  genus  of  evergreen  trees  of  the  Taxacce  or  Tew 
Family,  mostly  native  of  warm  climates ;  one  species — the  P.  japonica-^ 
nearly  hardy  in  this  latitude,  but  it  is  doubtful,  if  it  will  prove  of  much 
value  as  an  ornamental  tree  at  the  North,  except  in  sheltered  situations. 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  289 

Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  mature  shoots  set  in  cold  frames,  or  in  a 
cool  greenhouse  during  the  winter  months. 

Poinsettia. — See  Euphorbia. 

Populus  (Poplar,  Aspen,  Cottonwood). — A  genus  of  about  twenty 
species,  one-half  the  number  indigenous  to  North  America,  and  one 
species — the  Quaking  Aspen  (P.  tremuloides)— extending  northward  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  With  few  exceptions  the  Poplars  are  large,  rapid- 
growing,  deciduous  trees,  thriving  in  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  succeed 
best  in  one  that  is  rather  moist.  Extensively  cultivated  in  cold  climates 
for  ornament,  fuel  and  shelter.  The  wood  is  rather  light,  of  little  value 
for  uses,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather,  but  is  valuable  for  fuel, 
especially  where  better  kinds  cannot  be  obtained.  Propagated  by  seeds, 
suckers,  cuttings  of  the  branches  and  roots.  Varieties  are  usually  prop- 
agated by  cuttings,  or  by  budding  and  grafting  upon  stocks  of  the  free- 
growing  species.  The  seeds  are  small  and  produced  in  pendulous  cat- 
kins, appearing  before  or  at  the  time  of  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves.  The 
eecds  ripen  early  in  the.  season,  or  about  two  months  from  the  time  the 
flowers  appear,  and  if  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  they  will  germinate  and  pro- 
duce plants  a  foot  or  more  in  height  the  first  season.  Seeds  should  be 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  seed  bed  and  merely  raked  in,  or  a  little 
fine  soil  sifted  over  them.  If  no  rain  falls  soon  after  the  seed  is  sown, 
water  must  be  given  in  liberal  quantities  until  the  plants  appear  and 
become  well  established.  Cuttings  may  be  made  of  either  one  or  two- 
year-old  wood,  and  planted  in  the  fall  or  spring. 

Potent  ilia  (Five  Finger,  Cinquefoil).~An  immense  genus  of  the 
Rose  Family,  and  with  few  exceptions  herbaceous  perennials,  the 
species  being  widely  distributed  around  the  world  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. The  Shrubby  Cinquefoil  (P.  fruticosa),  is  a  low-growing  shrub, 
two  to  four  feet  high,  with  bright  yellow  floweus ;  the  plants  usually 
continuing  in  bloom  from  early  spring  until  checked  by  frosts  in  autumn. 
This  handsome  little  shrub  is  indigenous  to  the  colder  regions  of  both 
North  America  and  Europe,  but  thrives  in  much  milder  climates.  Prop- 
agated by  divisions  of  the  clumps,  by  layers,  and  cuttings  of  the  mature 
wood,  taken  off  in  the  fall,  and  stored  in  the  usual  way  until  spring. 

Primus  (Plum,  Prunes). — In  most  of  the  recent  botanical  works  the 
Plum  and  Cherry  are  placed  in  the  genus  Prunus,  but  the  propagator  of 
these  fruits  is  obliged  to  keep  each  group  distinct  or  separate,  as  the  true 
Cherries  (Cerasus),  and  the  Plums  (Pnmus),  cannot  be,  except  in  rare 
instances,  interchanged  in  propagating  by  budding  and  grafting,  while 
the  Peach,  Almond,  Apricot  and  True  Plum  are  so  closely  allied  that  any 
and  all  of  the  species  and  varieties  may  be  employed  indiscriminately  as 
stocks  for  one  and  another.  Still,  there  is  always  a  preference  when, 
selecting  a  species  or  a  variety  for  a  stock.  (See  Fruit  Stocks,  Chapter 
XVIII.)  Propagated  by  seed,  layers,  cuttings  of  the  mature  wood,  and 
cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  latter  mode  is  not  recommended,  as  most  of 
the  species  and  varieties  are  inclined  to  produce  suckers  rather  too 


290  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

freely.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  the  common  European  Plum  (P,  domes- 
tica),  are  readily  increased  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe  wood  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  usual  with  the  Currant  and  Gooseberry.  The  Myrabo- 
lan  Plum,  so  largely  used  in  France  for  stocks,  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings  ;  also  many  of  our  choice  garden  varieties.  The  seeds  or  Plum 
stones  should  be  placed  where  they  will  be  kept  moist  and  cool  during 
the  winter  months,  and  if  they  freeze  while  moist,  the  shell  will  open  all 
the  more  readily  when  planted  out  in  the  spring. 

Pseudotsugtt  (Douglass  Spruce).— A  species  of  conifers  found  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  regions  ;  closely  allied  to  the  True  Spruces  (Plccci).  It  is 
a  hardy  tree,  thriving  in  our  Northern  Atlantic  States.  Propagated  by 
the  same  modes  as  the  more  common  species  of  the  Spruce. 

Ptelea  (Hop  Tree).— A  small  genus  of  North  American  shrubs  or 
small  trees.  Two  species  are  native  of  the  United  States ;  one,  the 
P.  trifoliata,  is  common  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  and  the  other 
one,  P.  cmgustifolia,  from  Texas  westward  to  California.  The  broad,  oblong 
winged  seed  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  common  Hop. 
Propagated  by  layers  and  seeds  sown  in  autumn",  or  preserved  in  sand 
until  spring. 

Pterocarya  (Winged  Walnut).  A  small  genus  of  deciduous  trees 
from  Asia,  closely  allied  to  the  Hickories  (Cart/a)  and  Walnuts  (Juglans). 
Propagated  by  seed  and  layers,  also  by  suckers  that  usually  spring  up 
about  the  main  stem,  these  producing  roots  sufficient  to  admit  of  allow- 
ing them  to  be  taken  off  and  planted  out  with  safety. 

Pterostyrax  (Winged  Storax).— An  ornamental  deciduous  shrub  or 
small  tree  from  Japan,  bearing  creamy-white,  fragrant  flowers.  It  be- 
longs to  the  Storax  Family  (Styracaccce),  and  is  closely  related  to  the 
Halesias.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  and  by  grafting  on  the  Halesia. 
Veneer  grafting  under  glass  in  late  summer  is  the  most  certain  mode. 

Punlca  (Pomegranate).— This  is  one  of  the  few  fruits  that  appears 
to  have  come  down  to  us  from  very  ancient  times,  and  almost  in  its  prim- 
itive condition.  The  Promegranate  tree  is  of  a  rather  bushy  habit,  grow- 
ing from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high  in  tropical  countries,  although  it  is 
readily  controlled  by  pruning,  and  may  be  trained  in  the  form  of  a  small 
shrub.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  throughout  "the  semi-tropical  and 
tropical  countries  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  and  highly  prized  as  an 
ornamental  and  fruit-bearing  tree,  in  our  Southern  States.  The  fruit  is 
as  large  as  an  ordinary  apple,  and  the  numerous  seeds  imbedded  in  or 
surrounded  with  a  juicy  pulp  ;  it  is  used  in  hot  climates  for  making  cool- 
ing drinks.  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation,  all  readily  prop- 
agated by  seeds,  layers  and  cuttings.  Very  scarce  varieties  are  sometimes 
propagated  by  grafting  on  the  more  common  sorts. 

Quercus  (Oak).— A  very  large  genus  of  evergreen  and  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubs.  About  forty  species  are  found  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  and  more  than  two  hundred  additional  species  are  in- 
digenous to  other  countries  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  are  for 


SELECT   LISTS   Of   PLANTS.  291 

the  most  part  highly  valued  for  ornament  as  well  as  their  hard  and  dur- 
able timber,  and  there  are  few  other  kinds  of  trees  that 'have  been  more 
celebrated  in  peace  and  war  than  the  Oaks.  The  flowers  are  monoecious  : 
the  statninate  flowers  in  catkins,  the  pistillate  in  a  cup-like  involucre, 
covered  with  scales ;  the  seed  a  one-celled  nut,  well  known  under  the 
common  name  of  Acorn.  The  acorns  of  some  species  of  the  Oak  ripen 
the  first  season  ;  in  others  not  until  the  autumn  of  the  second,  but  all  ap- 
pear to  be  inclined  to  germinate  very  soon  after  they  have  fallen  and  come 
in  contact  with  the  moist  earth  ;  consequently,  whatever  is  to  be  done  in 
the  way  of  gathering,  storing,  or  sowing,  must  not  be  delayed  long  after 
the  acorns  begin  to  fall  from  the  trees.  If  the  acorns  are  shaken  from 
the  trees,  or  picked  up  as  they  fall,  they  may  be  preserved  in  a  cool 
room  for  weeks,  and  some  species  for  several  months,  without  serious 
injury ;  but,  as  a  rule,  acorns  are  rather  difficult  to  preserve  in  good  con- 
dition for  growth,  and  the  sooner  they  are  sown  after  ripening,  the 
better.  In  some  few  of  the  species,  the  nuts  do  not  fall  out  of  the  cup, 
but  both  drop  together,  and  the  acorn  remains  within  the  husk  until  it 
germinates  the  following  spring,  when  it  bursts  both  the  inner  and  outer 
shell  in  its  germination.  But  this  form  of  acorn  is  rather  an  excep- 
tion than  the  rule  ;  those  of  a  larger  majority  of  the  species  begin  to 
grow  in  the  fall,  the  root  or  radicle  penetrating  the  soil  for  several 
inches,  thereby  holding  the  acorn  in  a  position  for  the  production  of  the 
plumule  or  stem,  the  following  spring.  Any  one  who  has  taken  a  stroll 
on  the  edge  of  an  oak  forest  late  in  the  fall,  must  have  noticed  these 
"anchored"  acorns,  while  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  still  remained 
within  the  inner  shell.  But  when  fairly  within  an  oak  forest,  we  find 
that  the  acorns  as  they  fall  do  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  soil, 
the  layers  of  old  tough  leaves  on  the  surface  preventing  ;  consequently 
the  larger  proportion  of  the  acorns  perish  for  the  want  of  suitable 
anchorage,  or  conditions  favorable  for  growth. 

In  sowing  acorns,  they  may  be  scattered  in  single  or  broad  drills,  or 
even  broadcast  over  the  surface  of  a  seed-bed,  and  then  lightly  covered 
with  hay,  chaff,  or  very  fine  old  manure  or  leaf-mold.  In  such  positions 
they  will  take  root  in  the  autumn,  and  the  next  season  make  a  vigorous 
growth.  As  with  other  nuts,  a  light,  sandy  soil  will  insure  a  far  greater 
number  of  fibrous  roots  than  a  heavy  one.  Those  persons  who  live  near 
oak  forests  can  always  secure  a  stock  of  seedlings,  without  the  trouble 
or  cost  of  gathering  and  sowing  the  nuts,  by  merely  raking  away  the  old 
leaves  from  under  the  trees  of  the  species  they  desire  to  secure.  The 
acorns  falling  on  the  bare  ground  will  soon  sprout  and  become  fixed  in 
position,  and  the  leaves  falling  later  will  give  them  ample  protection. 
I  have  practised  this  with  eminent  success  with  our  common  White  and 
Black  Oaks,  and  while  the  seedlings  obtained  in  this  way  were  not  as 
large  as  those  raised  in  the  nursery,  they  were  still  fair  plants  and  made 
a  good,  vigorous  growth  when  transplanted  to  nursery-rows.  Of  course, 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  seedlings  can  be  obtained  in  this  way  in 
regions  where  hogs  are  pastured  in  the  woods.  Kare  species  and  varieties 


292  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

of  the  Oak  are  propagated  by  grafting.  (See  Chapter  XVII.)  But  it  win 
be  found  in  practice  that  the  Oaks  are  rather  difficult  subjects  to  deal 
with,  and  grafting  in  the  open  air  should  be  performed  early  in  spring. 
Veneer  grafting  in  August,  under  glass,  is  the  most  likely  to  be  success- 
ful, especially  with  the  evergreen  and  variegated-leaved  Oaks. 

Raphiolepts  (Indian  Hawthorn). — A  genus  of  low-growing  ever- 
green shrubs  from  China  and  Japan.  They  are  closely  related  to  the 
Hawthorns  (Vratcegus),  with  large,  thick,  dark-green,  leathery  leaves  and 
white  or  pink,  sweet-scented  flowers  in  pyramidal-shaped  clusters.  The 
Japan  species  (R.Japonicci)  is  said  to  be  hardy  in  the  gardens  of  London, 
England,  and  will  probably  succeed  here  with  a  slight  protection  in 
winter.  Propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  half-ripened  shoots  planted  in  a 
greenhouse  or  in  close  frame  in  the  open  ground. 

Rettnispora. — See  Chamcecyparis. 

Rhamnus  (Buckthorn). — A  very  large  and  widely  distributed  genus 
of  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs.  There  are  a  half  dozen 
indigenous  species,  and  the  common  European  Buckthorn  (It.  catharli- 
cus),  formerly  used  as  a  hedge-plant  in  this  country,  has  run  wild  in 
many  places.  The  berries  of  this  species  were  formerly  used  in  medicine, 
and  the  juice  of  the  ripe  berries  yield  a  pigment  called  "  Sap-green,"  in 
common  use  by  water-color  painters,  while  the  bark  of  the  branches 
and  roots  yield  a  valuable  yellow  dye.  Propagated  by  seed,  and  these, 
being  quite  hard,  like  the  Hawthorns,  do  not  usually  germinate  until 
the  second  season,  and  require  the  same  treatment. 

Rhododendron  (Rose-Bay).  —  An  extensive  genus  of  evergreen 
shrubs  and  small  trees,  with  large,  and  usually  very  thick,  smooth,  green 
leaves.  Taking  them  as  a  whole,  the  Rhododendrons  may  be  placed  in 
the  front  rank  among  the  most  showy  and  elegant  of  ornamental  plants. 
There  are  not  only  a  large  number  of  species,  but  almost  innumerable 
varieties  in  cultivation,  while  new  ones  appear  every  year,  as  hybrid- 
izing and  crossing  is  readily  effected,  resulting  in  wide  variation  in 
habit  of  plant,  and  in  form,  size,  and  color  of  the  flowers.  Propagated 
by  seeds,  layers,  and  grafting,  and  some  of  the  more  slender  and  tender 
species  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots,  removed  with  a  heel  of  the  old 
wood,  then  plunged  in  sand  in  close  frames  with  bottom  heat.  The 
seeds  are  very  minute,  and  must  not  be  covered  deeply.  They  are 
usually  sown  in  shallow  boxes  or  seed-pans,  filled  with  a  mixture  of  leaf- 
mold  and  clean  sand,  and  then  placed  in  a  close  frame  until  the  plants 
appear,  care  being  required  in  watering,  lest  the  seeds  are  washed  out  on 
the  surface.  When  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  handle,  remove  into 
other  boxes  or  pans,  giving  them  a  little  more  room  for  growth,  then 
replace  in  the  frames  for  a  few  days,  or  until  the  plants  become  estab- 
lished in  their  new  position  ;  after  this  they  may  be  gradually  hardened 
off  by  removing  the  covers  of  the  frames  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time. 
Hardy  species  and  varieties  may  be  planted  out  in  a  sheltered  position, 
when  a  year  old,  although  there  will  be  nothing  lost  by  keeping  them. 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  293 

in  the  seed  pans  a  little  longer.  There  are  several  modes  of  grafting 
practised  with  Rhododendrons,  but  veneer  grafting  or  side  grafting  in 
August  and  September  under  glass  are  the  most  certain  as  well  as  the 
most  convenient.  (Sjee  Chapter  XVII.) 

Rhus  (Sumac,  Smoke  Tree,  Etc.)— A  very  large  and  important  genus 
of  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs.  Some  are  extremely 
poisonous,  others  yield  astringent  properties  valuable  for  tanning  Tur- 
key and  Morocco  leather.  One  Japanese  species  is  said  to  yield  the 
famous  lacquer,  another  a  valuable  wax,  and  taking  it  all  together,  the 
genus  is  a  valuable  one  in  the  arts,  besides  those  species  cultivated  for 
ornamental  purposes,  like  the  common  Venetian  Sumac  (R.  cotinus),  and 
the  rather  rare  but  closely  allied  American  Smoke  tree  (R.  cotinoides). 
Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  cuttings  of  the  roots,  and  some  species  by 
cuttings  of  the  ripened  wood,  made  in  autumn  before  the  branches  have 
been  severely  frosted. 

Itlbes  (Currant,  Gooseberry).—  Well-known,  berry-bearing,  deciduous 
shrubs,  mostly  native  of  cold  climates,  succeeding  very  poorly  or  not  at 
all  in  warm  ones.  New  varieties  are  raised  from  seeds,  which  germinate 
at  a  very  low  temperature,  and  for  this  reason  they  must  be  stored  in  a 
very  cool  place,  else  they  will  sprout  in  spring-  before  the  weather  will 
permit  of  a  continuation  of  growth.  Seeds  should  be  washed  from  the 
pulp,  then  mixed  with  pure  sand  and  placed  in  the  shade  out-of-doors  ; 
on  the  north  side  of  a  building  is  usually  a  safe  position  to  prevent 
early  germination  in  spring.  If  only  a  few  plants  are  to  be  raised  from 
seeds,  they  can,  of  course,  be  started  under  glass,  but  the  open  ground 
is  preferable,  givi::g  the  young  plants  shade  until  they  are  well  estab- 
lished. All  the  species  and  varieties  are  readily  increase  1  by  layers  and 
cuttings  of  the  mature  one-year-old  shoots.  The  usual  practice  is  to 
make  the  cuttings  of  Currants  early  in  the  fall,  and  plant  immediately, 
protecting  the  cuttings  with  a  mulch  of  coarse  hay  or  manure.  They 
will  produce  roots  before  the  ground  freezes,  and  the  mulch  will  prevent 
lifting  by  frost.  Gooseberry  cuttings  may  be  made  a  little  later  in  the 
fall,  but  not  planted  out  until  spring.  (See  Grafting,  Chapter  XVII.) 

Itobinia  (Locust  Tree). — A  genus  of  few  species,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  common  Locust  or  False  Acacia  (R.  Pseudacacia),  a  large, 
deciduous  forest  tree,  with  deep  green  pinnate  leaves  and  loose-drooping 
racemes  of  white  fragrant  flowers.  The  timber  of  this  tree,  when  of  slow 
growth,  is  one  of  the  most  durable  known.  Formerly,  this  tree  was  ex- 
tensively planted  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  is  still  to  a  limited  extent ; 
but  of  late  years  the  Locust  borer  (Cyllcne pictus),  has  been  so  destruc- 
tive to  the  trees  that  very  few  are  now  planted.  There  are  two  other 
indigenous  species— one  a  mere  shrub  with  rose-colored  flowers— that  are 
cultivated  for  ornament.  Propagated  by  seeds,  sown  in  the  fall  or  spring, 
and  the  ornamental  species  and  varieties  by  seeds,  cuttings  of  the  roots, 
and  by  budding  and  grafting.  (See  Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Rosa  (Rose).— A  very  extensive  or  limited  genus,  according  to  the 


294  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

botanical  authority  one  consults  for  information  on  this  point.  Some 
make  the  number  of  species  250,  but  modern  botanists  have  reduced  it 
to  about  thirty,  all  natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  The  number  of  varieties  in  cultivation  is  un- 
known, for  old  ones  become  obsolete,  as  new  ones  are  introduced, 
although  there  are  always  several  thousand  enumerated  in  rose-growers' 
catalogues.  The  Rose  is  a  universal  favorite  among  all  civilized  nations, 
and  the  difference  in  the  fragrance  of  the  flowers  of  the  varieties  is  only 
equalled  by  their  variation  in  size,  form  and  color.  To  attempt  to  clas- 
sify the  cultivated  Roses  at  the  present  day  would  be  a  hopeless  task,  for 
species  have  become  so  intermixed  that  specific  characteristics  have  been 
mostly  obliterated.  In  the  propagation  of  the  Rose,  every  mode  at  all 
applicable  to  ligneous  plants  is  employed  in  its  multiplication.  Roses 
are  raised  from  seeds,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  producing  new  varie- 
ties, but  sometimes  for  stocks  on  which  to  bud  or  graft  the  improved 
sorts.  For  all  the  common,  hardy  varieties  of  the  Rose  that  produce 
seed,  the  fruit  or  "heps  "—as  English  gardeners  call  them— should  be 
gathered  when  ripe,  and  thrown  into  some  vessel  where  they  will  be 
moist  until  the  surrounding  pulp  becomes  soft ;  then  crush  and  wash  out 
the  seeds,  and  either  mix  with  sand  and  set  aside  where  they  will  freeze, 
or  sow  immediately  in  a  bed  in  the  open  air,  and  treat  as  recommended 
for  Hawthorn  and  other  similar  seeds.  But  if  there  is  danger  of  mice 
getting  into  the  bed  during  the  winter,  it  is  best  to  keep  the  seeds  in  the 
boxes  with  sand,  covering  with  wire  netting  to  keep  them  out.  In 
spring,  sow  the  seeds  and  sand  together  in  seed-pans,  boxes,  or  in  an 
outside  frame,  but  always  where  they  can  be  given  plenty  of  water  and 
be  protected  from  vermin.  Scalding  the  seeds  before  sowing  will  hasten 
germination,  but  it  is  not  usually  necessary,  if  the  seeds  have  been  kept 
moist  and  cold  during  the  winter.  Sometimes  the  seeds  will  not  sprout 
until  the  second  year,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  the  seed  beds  moist  through- 
out the  summer,  even  if  some  plants  do  appear  the  first  season,  as  more 
will  usually  come  up  the  second.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough, 
they  should  be  carefully  lifted  and  transplanted  into  other  frames  or 
boxes.  The  tender  Roses  maybe  raised  in  the  same  way,  only  avoid 
subjecting  the  seed  to  as  low  a  temperature,  and  it  is  better  to  sow  it  in 
pans  or  shallow  boxes  in  the  house.  Green  cuttings  of  what  are  called 
the  Tea,  Noisette,  Bourbon,  Hybrid  and  Hybrid  Perpetuals,  and  several 
other  classes,  strike  root  quite  freely  in  sand  under  glass,  and  this  is  the 
Usual  method  of  propagating  these  varieties.  Some  of  them,  however, 
are  rather  slow  growers  and  shy  bloomers  on  their  own  roots,  and  to  in- 
crease the  growth  and  vigor,  they  are  budded  on  hardy  and  strong-grow- 
ing varieties,  such  as  the  Manetti,  Sweet-briar  and  Dog  Rose.  These 
kinds  are  also  employed  as  stocks  for  many  other  varieties,  both  tender 
and  hardy.  Hardy  Roses,  however,  if  naturally  of  a  free-growing  habit, 
are  to  be  preferred  on  their  own  roots,  especially  for  amateurs,  who  can- 
not be  always  on  guard,  lest  some  sucker  from  the  root  comes  up  and 
robs  the  graft  of  its  nutriment.  Roses  are  usually  budded  in  the  open 


SELECT   LISTS   OF    PLANTS.  295 

ground  in  summer,  and  at  any  time  when  good  plump  buds  can  be 
obtained,  and  the  stocks  are  in  condition  to  receive  them.  Grafting  is 
rarely  practised  in  the  open  air,  but  splice  grafting  on  pieces  of  roots  of 
some  common  variety  is  a  convenient  and  rapid  mode  of  increasing  rare 
varieties,  the  cuttings  of  which  do  not  strike  root  readily.  Cions  of  one 
bud  will  answer,  but  if  the  wood  is  short  jointed,  two  are  better ;  the 
grafted  roots  being  planted  in  boxes  filled  with  sand  or  very  light  soil, 
and  afterwards  given  the  same  care  as  ordinary  cuttings.  This  is  a  com- 
mon mode  of  propagating  Moss  Hoses  and  other  similar  hard-wood 
varieties.  Most  of  the  Climbing  Roses,  of  both  native  and  foreign  origin 
—also  the  classes  known  under  the  name  of  Perpetual  and  Hybrid  Per- 
petuals — are  quite  readily  propagated  by  ripe  wood  cuttings,  placed  in  a 
cool  greenhouse  in  autumn,  or  in  protected  frames  in  the  open  ground. 
They  are  also  readily  increased  by  green  cuttings  taken  from  plants  in 
the  open  air,  or  from  those  forced  under  glass;  the, short,  spur-like 
shoots,  taken  off  with  a  heel,  are  preferable  for  this  purpose  to  the  more 
vigorous  and  succulent  wood.  But  the  most  simple  method  of  propa- 
gating Roses  is  by  root  cuttings,  and  there  are  very  few  species  or  varie- 
ties that  cannot  be  readily  multiplied  by  cuttings  of  their  roots.  Some 
species  and  varieties — like  the  Moss  Roses,  Briars  and  common  June 
Roses — usually  considered  difficult  to  propagate  by  layers  and  cuttings 
of  the  shoots,  grow  very  freely  from  pieces  of  their  roots,  if  these  are 
given  sufficient  time  to  develop  adventitious  buds  before  attempting  to 
force  them  to  produce  new  roots  and  stems.  The  time  to  make  root 
cuttings  of  hardy  Roses  is  in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  been 
checked  by  cool  weather.  The  roots,  or  a  part  of  them,  may  be  removed 
without  digging  up  the  entire  plant,  but  it  is  better  to  lift  the  plants, 
following  out  the  roots  to  their  ends,  then  cut  away  all  those  suitable 
for  cuttings— the  larger  roots  make  the  best,  but  those  of  not  more  than 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  will  answer — and  cut  all  up  into 
pieces  of  two  to  three  inches  in  length.  Pack  these  pieces  between 
layers  of  damp  moss — the  common  Sphagnum  from  the  swamps  and  low 
grounds  is  the  best,  but  if  this  cannot  be  obtained,  pure  clean  and  sharp 
sand  may  be  used  instead.  These  root  cuttings  may  be  packed  in  well- 
drained  boxes  or  large  flower  pots,  or  any  similar  vessel,  but  in  all  cases 
they  should  be  well  drained  and  absolutely  clean  and  free  from  any  taint 
or  substance  likely  to  generate  or  promote  the  growth  of  mildew  and 
mold.  These  boxes  or  other  vessels  containing  the  cuttings,  may  be 
buried  in  a  dry  place  in  the  open  ground  or  set  away  in  a  cool  cellar, 
where  they  can  be  examined  from  time  to  time  during  the  winter,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  their  condition  and  giving  water,  if  it  should  be 
required.  If  buds  push  too  rapidly,  lower  the  temperature  ;  and  if  they 
do  not  come  forward  as  rapidly  as  is  thought  necessary,  increase  the 
temperature,  or  remove  to  a  warmer  place.  Root  cuttings  of  some  varie- 
ties will  push  into  growth  under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  where 
others  will  remain  quite  dormant,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  place 
the  cuttings  where  they  can  be  examined.  All  that  is  necessary  or 


296  PROPAGATION"   OF   PLANTS. 

desired  is  to  secure  the  development  of  one  or  more  buds  on  each  cut- 
ting by  the  time  the  weather  will  permit  of  planting  them  in  the  open 
ground  in  spring.  These  root  cuttings  may  be  sown  in  drills  and  cov- 
ered with  good  rich  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  inches,  and  water  applied  to 
settle  the  ground,  or  it  may  be  packed  slightly  with  the  back  of  a  hoe  or 
light  roller.  Good  strong  plants  are  usually  produced  from  such  root 
cuttings  the  first  season.  With  the  more  delicate,  tender  varieties,  like 
the  Teas  and  Bourbons,  the  roots  should  be  treated  as  recommended  for 
those  of  the  Bouvardia — which  see. 

Rubus  (Raspberry,  Blackberry). — A  large  and  interesting  genus  of 
plants,  the  species  pretty  widely  distributed  over  the  world.  Some  of 
the  species  are  strong,  large,  upright  shrubs  with  perennial  woody  stems ; 
in  others — as  with  most  of  our  cultivated  species  and  varieties — the  stems 
are  biennial — that  is,  growing  one  season,  fruiting  the  next,  and  dying 
down  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  or  early  autumn.  The  few  herbaceous 
species  are  natives  of  cold  climates,  while  the  evergreen  are  mostly  in- 
digenous to  warm  or  tropical  ones.  In  the  propagation  of  these  fruits, 
seed  is  seldom  employed,  except  for  the  purpose  of  producing  new  vari- 
eties, and  it  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  ripe  berries,  or  the 
latter  may  be  dried,  and  the  seeds  preserved  in  good  condition  for  several 
years,  and  when  wanted  for  sowing  it  is  only  necessary  to  soak  the  dried 
fruit  for  a  few  hours  in  warm  water,  wash  out  the  seeds,  and  sow  in  good 
soil,  watering  the  bed  freely  until  the.plants  appear  and  are  large  enough 
for  transplanting.  The  ornamental  Brambles,  as  represented  in  the 
Atlantic  States  by  the  Purple-Flowered  Raspberry  (R.  odomtus),  and  in 
the  Western  and  Pacific  Coast  regions  by  the  Salmon-Berry  (72.  Nutka- 
nus),  and  one  or  two  other  closely  allied  species,  and  from  China  by  the 
Rose-Flowered  Raspberry  (It.  roscefolius),  are  rarely  cultivated  for  their 
fruit,  although  it  is  edible,  but  rather  deficient  in  flavor.  The  species 
most  valued  for  their  fruit  belong  to  the  two  groups  known  as  true  gar- 
den Raspberries  and  Blackberries.  There  are  upright-growing  and  trail- 
ing species,  and  varieties  in  both  groups.  Those  with  a  trailing  habit 
increase  naturally  by  a  natural  process,  called  rooting,  or  taking  root  at 
the  tips,  the  long,  flexible  canes  bending  over  and  taking  root,  as  seen 
in  the  varieties  of  the  Black-caps  (R.  occidcntalis),  among  the  Rasp- 
berries, and  in  the  Low  Blackberry  or  Dewberry  (R.  Canadensis).  The 
trailing  species  do  not  produce  suckers,  but  sometimes  numerous  sprouts 
spring  up  from  around  the  base  of  the  main  stems,  and  the  old  stools 
may  be  taken  up  and  divided  into  several  plants,  when  such  a  mode  of 
propagation  is  desirable  for  the  more  rapid  increase  of  a  variety.  The 
upright-growing  species  of  both  groups  produce  suckers  more  or  less 
freely ;  these  latter  are  employed  in  their  propagation,  and  taken 
up  in  spring  or  fall,  and  set  out  to  make  new  plantations.  But  in  the 
propagation  of  the  garden  Blackberries,  better  plants  may  be  raised  by 
root  cuttings  than  are  produced  naturally  in  the  form  of  suckers,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  such  varieties  of  the  Raspberry,  as  the  Purple  Cane, 
Philadelphia,  and  Shaffer's  Colossal,  because  when  raised  from  root  cut- 


SELECT  LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  297 

tings  the  plants  axe  far  better  supplied  with  small  fibrous  roots,  which 
are  readily  preserved  in  the  digging  and  transplanting.  The  method  of 
propagating  the  different  species  of  Uttbus  by  root  cuttings  is  the  same 
as  described  for  Eoses  and  other  similar  hardy  plants,  but  the  roots  of 
some  of  the  varieties  grow  much  more  freely  than  others.  The  orna- 
mental varieties,  especially  those  cultivatad  under  glass,  are  readily 
propagated  by  green  cuttings  taken  off  close  to  the  old  wood,  or  with  a 
heel,  and  planted  in  sand  in  a  close  frame. 

Salisburia  (Ginkgo,  Maidenhair  Tree). — A  large,  hardy,  deciduous 
ornamental  tree  from  Japan  and  China.  It  belongs  to  the  Taxaccce  or 
Yew  Family,  and  is  the  only  representative  of  the  genus.  The  pistillate 
and  staminate  flowers  are  on  different  trees,  the  pistillate  flowers  solitary ; 
fruit  drupe-like,  with  a  large  nut-like  seed.  Although  introduced  more 
than  a  century  ago  (1784),  the  Ginkgo  is  still  far  from  being  a  common 
tree  in  this  country.  Propagated  by  seeds  imported  mostly  from  oriental 
countries,  by  layers,  and  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots  taken  off  with  a 
heel  in  midsummer,  or  of  the  ripened  twigs  in  autumn,  and  planted  in 
frames  in  a  greenhouse.  Varieties  are  propagate:!  by  the  same  modes, 
or  by  grafting  in  the  open  air  early  in  spring,  or  under  glass  in  August. 

Salix  (Willow,  Osier).— An  immense  genus  of  widely  distributed  trees 
and  shrubs,  all  thriving  best  in  moist  soils  and  swamps.  The  larger 
number  are  so  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  that  other  modes  are 
seldom  practised,  except  to  produce  small,  weeping  trees,  by  budding  or 
grafting  the  small,  low-growing  species  on  stocks  of  those  of  an  upright 
habit.  (See  Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Sassafras.— A  well-known  native  deciduous  tree  of  the  Laurel  Fam- 
ily, with  very  fragrant  foliage,  and  roots  with  thick,  yellow,  spicy  bark. 
A  handsome  tree,  but  produces  suckers  far  too  freely  for  admission  into 
cultivated  grounds.  Readily  propagated  by  seed  and  cuttings  of  the 
roots.  The  species  is  S.  officinale,  and,  in  some  works,  Laurus  Sassafras. 

Sambucus  (Elder). — A  small  genus  of  deciduous  shrubs  and  a  few 
herbaceous  plants.  The  shrubby  species  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings, 
and  layers,  and  the  herbaceous  by  division  of  the  roots.  The  shrubby 
species  usually  increase  far  too  rapidly  by  suckers,  and  often  become  a 
nuisance  in  grounds  of  limited  extent. 

Sciadopitys  (Umbrella  Pine).— A  rare  coniferous  evergreen  tree 
from  the  mountains  of  Japan,  where  it  grows  from  pne  hundred  to  ono 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  A  very  distinct  and  hardy  conifer,  but 
apparently  of  rather  slow  growth.  Usually  propagated  by  seeds  imported 
from  Japan,  but  the  seedlings  make  an  exceedingly  slow  growth,  at 
least  during  the  first  half  dozen  years.  Cuttings  of  the  half-ripened 
shoots,  taken  off  in  summer  and  planted  under  glass,  strike  root  quite 
readily;  and  where  one  has  good  stock  plants  to  supply  the  cuttings 
this  is  the  most  expeditious  mode  of  propagation. 

Sequoia  (Great  Tree  of  California,  Etc.) — A  genus  of  two  species 
of  coniferous  evergreen  trees  both  native  of  California.  One  species,  the 


298  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Sequoia  gigantca,  is  supposed  to  grow  to  a  larger  size  than  any  other  tree 
indigenous  to  Europe  or  America,  and  is  only  excelled  in  size  by  a  few 
species  of  the  Eucalyptus  in  Australia.  Propagated  by  seeds,  which 
should  be  sown  in  a  half-shady  position,  lightly  covered,  and  kept  moist 
until  the  plants  appear  ;  then  some  care  is  required  to  prevent  damping 
off  in  warm  weather,  although  watering  must  not  be  neglected.  Only 
moderate  heat  is  necessary  to  insure  a  healthy  growth.  A  temperature 
of  from  fifty  to  sixty  degrees  will  prove  to  be  far  better  than  a  higher 
one.  These  trees  may  also  be  propagated  by  layers  and  cuttings,  treated 
the  same  as  usual  with  the  common  Arbor- vitae,  Yews  and  Junipers. 
The  Sequoia*  thrive  best  in  a  rather  moist  soil,  and  in  what  is  usually 
termed  a  moist,  cool  climate.  S.  sempervirens  is  the  valuable  Red-wood. 

Sheperdia  (Buffalo  Berry). — A  genus  of  three  North  American 
deciduous  shrubs  or  small  trees,  found  only  in  the  cool  regions  of  the 
Northwest.  The  largest-growing  and  most  valuable  species  (8.  argentea), 
is  found  in  northern  New  Mexico  and  northward  to  Alaska ;  in  the  latter 
country,  I  am  informed  by  correspondents,  the  fruit  is  gathered  in  im- 
mense quantities  by  the  Indians  for  use  in  winter.  The  fruit  is  of  a 
bright  scarlet  color,  resembling  small  currants,  juicy,  rather  acid,  but 
pleasant  flavored.  This  species  succeeds  perfectly  in  this  latitude  ; 
I  raised  plants  from  seed  gathered  on  the  Upper  Missouri  thirty  years 
ago  ;  they  are  still  alive  ;  and  the  pistillate  plants  seldom  fail  to  bear 
a  good  crop*  of  fruit.  The  flowers  being  dioecious,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
trees  of  both  sexes  growing  near  together,  in  order  to  insure  the  produc- 
tion of  fruit  on  the  pistillate  or  female  plants.  Prop'agated  by  seeds, 
which  should  be  removed  from  the  ripe  fruit,  find  either  sown  ir  the  fall, 
or  mixed  with  sand,  kept  cool  and  moist  during  the  winter,  and  then 
sown  in  the  spring  in  a  half-shady  place,  as  the  young  seedlings  are 
rather  sensitive  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  in  this  climate. 

Sktmmia. — A  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  from  Japan,  closely  allied 
to  the  Evergreen  Barberries  (Bcrbens),  but  with  white,  sweet-scented 
flowers,  succeeded  by  bright  red  berries.  Not  quite  hardy  in  this  lati- 
tude. Propagated  by  layers,  or  cuttings  planted  under  glass. 

Sophora.—A.  genus  of  about  twenty-five  species  of  leguminous  trees, 
shrubs  or  herbs,  mostly  native  of  warm  countries.  There  are  two  or 
three  evergreen  shrubby  species  found  in  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  one  in 
Arizona  and  California.  The  species  most  highly  valued  in  cultivation 
is  the  S.  Japonica  and  its  numerous  varieties,  all  moderately  hardy  in  our 
Northern  States.  The  latter  are  propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  and  by 
grafting.  The  pendulous-branched  and  variegated-leaved  varieties  are 
grafted  on  stocks  of  the  species  in  the  open  air  in  spring.  Tender  vari- 
eties and  species  may  be  increased  by  cuttings  taken  from  plants  forced 
under  glass. 

Spiraea  (Meadow-Sweet,  Bridal  Wreath).— A  genus  of  a  half  hundred 
species,  mostly  native  of  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
They  are  mostly  low-growing  deciduous  shrubs,  a  few  with  persistent 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  299 

evergreen  leaves,  and  others  perennial  herbaceous  plants.  About  a 
dozen  species  are  natives  of  the  United  States,  two  of  which  are  low  herba- 
ceous plants  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions  and  far  northward.  Another 
herbaceous  species  of  tall  growth — viz.,  S.Aruncus— has  dioecious  flowers, 
the  male  plant  being  the  one  most  common  in  cultivation.  This  species 
is  very  widely  distributed  and  found  growing  wild  in  the  Alleghanies, 
thence  northward  to  Alaska  and  through  Northern  Asia  and  Europe. 
The  common  shrub  known  by  the  name  of  Nine-Bark,  and  in  most  • 
botanical  works  as  Spircea  opulifolia,  is  now  placed  in  the  genus  Neillla 
Don.,  along  with  four  or  five  other  species  found  in  the  mountains  of 
Asia.  The  shrubby  species  are  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  ripe 
wood,  by  layers,  and  cuttings  cf  the  roots.  Herbaceous  species  by 
division  of  the  clumps. 

Staphylea  (Bladder-Nut).— A  small  genus  of  three  or  four  species  of 
large  shrubs  with  small  white  flowers ;  the  seeds  produced  in  a  three- 
lobed,  three-celled  bladdery  pod.  Our  native  species  (S.  trifoliata)  is 
common  in  low  grounds  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States.  The 
European  Bladder-nut  (&.  pinnata),  and  the  Japanese  species  (S.  l>u- 
maldi\  are  occasionally  cultivated.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  suckers 
and  cuttings  of  the  large,  rather  fleshy  roots. 

Stuart ia. — Large,  hardy,  deciduous  shrubs,  with  showy  white  flow- 
ers, resembling  those  of  the  Tea-plant.  There  are  two  species  indigenous 
to  the  Southern  States,  and  one  or  two  to  Japan  ;  the  latter  have  recently 
lean  introduced.  Propagated  by  seeds  and  layers,  but  the  latter  do  not 
strike  root  very  readily.  It  is  said  that  they  are  propagated  by  ripe  wood 
cuttings,  planted  under  glass,  in  European  nurseries,  but  I  have  no  expe- 
rience with  this  mode. 

Styrax  (Storax). — A  genus  of  very  ornamental  deciduous  shrubs, 
represented  by  a  half  dozen  species  in  the  United  States.  The  European 
species  (S.  officinalc)  is  noted  for  producing  the  very  powerful  and  fra- 
grant balsam,  known  by  the  name  of  Storax.  Propagated  by  seeds  and 
layers,  and  by  grafting.  (See  Halesia,  and  Selection  of  Stocks,  Chapter 
XVIII.) 

SympJioricarpus  (Snowberry,  Indian  Currant). — A  genus  of  about 
a  half  dozen  species  of  low-growing  North  American  shrubs,  cultivated 
for  their  ornamental  berries.  The  hardy  species  are  common  in  gardens. 
Propagated  by  cuttings  or  suckers  ;  the  latter  produced  in  great  abund- 
ance. 

Symplocos  (Sweet-Leaf,  Horse-Sugar).—  Evergreen  trees  or  shrubs 
of  the  Storax  Family.  One  species  native  of  the  Southern  States  (S. 
tinctoria),  one  of  Mexico,  and  two  or  three  in  China  and  Japan.  Propa- 
gated by  cuttings  under  glass. 

Syringa  (Lilac).— A  genus  of  old  and  well-known  ornamental  shrubs. 
There  are  but  few  species,  but  an  immense  number  of  cultivated  varie- 
ties, and  new  ones  are  being  brought  forward  almost  every  year.  Propa- 
gated by  seeds,  suckers,  layers,  and  cuttings  of  the  larger  roots.  Also 


300  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

by  budding  and  grafting  in  the  open  air  in  summer  or  early  spring.  The 
Lilacs  will  grow  when  grafted  on  the  Ash  and  common  Privet,  but  the 
union  between  the  two  kinds  of  wood  is  seldom  perfect,  and  the  plants 
not  very  long  lived. 

Tamar  ind us  (Tamarind).— Semi-tropical  or  tropical  evergreen  trees 
bearing  delicious  fruit,  well  known  in  all  great  cities  in  its  preserved  or 
dried  state.  Readily  propagated  by  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  in  a 
hot-bed  or  where  it  can  be  given  bottom  heat,  and  the  young  plants 
taken  up  and  potted  singly  when  a  few  inches  high,  or  in  hot  climates 
set  out  in  a  half-shady  bed.  The  plants  may  also  be  increased  by  cut- 
tings planted  in  sand  under  glass,  or  in  the  open  ground  in  tropical 
countries. 

Tamartx  (Tamarisk).— Slender-growing  shrubs  or  small  trees  from 
Europe  and  Asia.  All  are  evergreen  in  warm  climates,  or  when  grown 
under  glass;  but  the  French  Tamarisk  (T.  Gallica),  the  species  most 
common  in  the  gardens  of  this  country,  is  slowly  deciduous  in  the  lati- 
tude of  New  York  City  and  a  few  degrees  further  south.  The  hardy 
species  and  varieties  are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  mature 
shoots,  planted  in  the  open  ground,  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 

Taxodium  (Bald  Cypress).— A  small  genus  of  lofty-growing,  decid- 
uous coniferous  trees,  with  very  short  and  narrow,  or  long  and  slender, 
thread-like  leaves.  The  Bald  or  Deciduous  Cypress  is  a  familiar  indige- 
nous representative  of  the  genus  growing  abundantly  in  the  swamps  of 
the  Southern  States.  Although  this  tree  is  a  native  of  a  warm  climate, 
still  it  is  quite  hardy  in  most  of  our  Northern  States,  and  thrives  in 
almost  any  kind  of  soil.  The  Glyptostrobus  of  China  are  now  considered 
as  only  species  of  the  genus  Taxodium,  although  the  former  name  is 
still  retained  in  nurserymen's  catalogues,  and  in  a  few  botanical  works. 
The  Taxodiums  are  readily  propagated  by  seeds,  treated  in  the  same  man 
ner  as  those  of  the  ordinary  conifers.  Also  by  layers,  and  the  cuttings 
of  the  young  shoots  in  summer,  placed  in  pure  sand,  constantly  saturated 
with  water.  They  will  also  strike  root  in  water  alone,  but  the  sand  is 
preferable,  because  it  will  hold  each  cutting  in  one  position  or  place,  un- 
til the  roots  are  formed.  The  weeping,  variegated,  and  other  varieties 
of  the  oriental  Taxodiums,  may  be  grafted  on  stocks  of  the  American 
Bald  Cypress.  Grafting  in  spring  in  the  open  air  and  close  to  the  ground 
is  sometimes  practiced  with  success,  but  the  cions  should  be  shaded  for 
a  time  with  paper  caps,  or  an  inverted  flower  pot  will  answer.  Veneer 
grafting  under  glass  in  August  is  however  the  preferable  mode  for  all 
kinds  of  coniferous  trees. 

Taxus  (Yews). — Well-known  ornamental  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs. 
They  are  closely  allied  .to  the  conifers,  but  the  fruit  is  not  a  cone,  but 
drupe-like,  and  the  seed  enclosed  in  a  soft,  bright  red,  cup-shaped  berry. 
Our  American  Yew  (T.  Canadensis)  is  alow,  prostrate  shrub,  found  com- 
mon in  woods  far  ncrth.  Propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  and  cuttings  of 
the  green  twigs  under  glass,  or  the  mature  wood  taken  off  in  the  fall  and 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS.  301 

planted  in  frames,  where  they  can  be  given  slight  protection  during  the 
•winter, 

Tecoma  (Trumpet  Creeper). — For  propagation  see  Lignonia. 

Tliea  (Tea  Plant).— See  Camellia. 

Thuja  (Arbor- Vitse,  White  Cedar). — A  very  extensive  genus  of  con- 
iferous evergreen  trees,  or  a  very  limited  one,  depending  entirely  upon 
whose  classification  we  adopt  as  our  guide.  If  the  Retinisporas,  Chamce- 
cyparis,  Libocedrus,  and  Blotos  are  excluded,  as  they  are  by  some  bota- 
nists, a  very  limited  number  of  true  Thujas  remain— or  only  two,  and 
these  are  both  indigenous  to  the  United  States.  But  if  all  the  species 
of  the  above  so-called  genera  are  included,  then  the  genus  will  be  a 
moderately  large  one.  But  the  different  species  are  so  closely  allied  that 
one  mode  of  propagation  answers  equally  well  for  all.  They  are  readily 
propagated  by  seeds,  sown  in  spring  in  half  shade,  and  watered  as  often 
as  necessary  to.  keep  the  surface  of  the  bed  moist  ;  by  layers,  cuttings  of 
the  green  shoots  under  glass,  and  of  the  ripe  twigs  in  autumn,  planted 
in  frames  out-of-doors,  or  in  a  cool  greenhouse.  Grafting  under  glass  is 
extensively  practiced  in  increasing  the  plants  of  rare  species  and  varie- 
ties. (For  Stocks,  see  Chapter  XVIII.) 

Ttlia  (Linden,  Basswood). — A  small  genus  of  only  about  a  half  dozen 
species  of  large,  deciduous  trees  of  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  and 
America.  All  valuable  for  ornament  and  for  their  timber.  Propagated 
by  seeds,  layers,  budding  and  grafting.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  as  soon 
as  ripe,  or  packed  away  in  moist  sand  until  spring,  and  then  sown.  Some- 
times the  plants  will  not  appear  until  the  second  season.  Layers  strike 
root  quite  readily,  if  notched  or  merely  twisted  until  the  bark  is  slightly- 
broken.  Budding  and  grafting  in  the  open  ground  is  the  usual  mode  of 
increasing  rare  varieties.  (See  Chapter  XVIII,,  on  Selecting  Stocks.) 

Torreya  (Stinking  Cedar). — Evergreen  trees  of  the  Yew  Family. 
One  species,  native  of  Florida  (T.  taxifclid),  is  called  "  Stinking  Cedar"  ;: 
another,  on  the  Pacific  Coast  ( T.  Calif  arnica},  is  known  under  the  com- 
mon name  of  "California  Nutmeg."  There  are  in  addition  several 
oriental  species.  Propagated  by  the  same  modes  as  the  common  Yew.  j 

Ulmus  (Elm). — A  genus  of  noble,  ornamental  and  useful,  deciduous 
forest  trees,  mostly  natives  of  Europe  and  America.  There  are  but  few 
species,  but  a  large  number  of  natural  varieties,  as  the  elms  are  noted  for 
their  wide  variation  from  what  may  be  considered  the  normal  types. 
Long  cultivation  and  the  raising  of  immense  numbers  from  seeds  under1 
artificial  conditions,  has  still  further  augmented  the  number  of  distinct 
varieties.  Seeds  of  most  of  the  species  ripen  early  in  summer,  and  should 
be  sown  as  soon  as  they  fall  from  the  tree,  and  lightly  covered  with  soil. 
Some  will  germinate  in  a  few  days,  while  others  remain  dormant  until 
the  following  spring.  Varieties  are  readily  propagated  by  layers  and  by 
grafting  on  strong  stocks  of  closely  allied  species  in  the  open  an*.  (See 
Stocks,  Chapter  XVIII.) 


303  PPOPAGATTON   OF   PLANTS. 

Vaccinium  (Cranberry,  Huckleberry,  Blueberry,  Etc.)— A  large 
genus  of  hardy,  upright-growing  shrubs,  or  low,  trailing  vines.  A  few 
are  evergreen,  but  they  are  mostly  deciduous,  and  the  larger  number 
natives  of  North  America.*-  The  low,  trailing  Cranberries,  V.  Oxycoccus 
and  V.  macrocarpon — especially  the  latter  and  its  many  varieties — are 
extensively  cultivated,  growing  freely  in  low  bogs  and  swamps,  and  the 
fruit  is  well  known  in  our  markets.  They  are  readily  propagated  by 
cuttings  planted  in  wet  soils.  But  the  Huckleberries  and  Blueberries 
are  rarely  cultivated,  although  there  is  really  no  good  reason  why  they 
should  not  be,  for  the  plants  thrive  on  almost  any  light  soil,  and  even 
those  species  which  naturally  grow  in  swamps  and  peat  bogs  will  thrive 
on  high  and  dry  soils,  provided  they  are  light  and  sandy.  The  shrubby 
species  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  layers.  The  seeds  being  very  small, 
they  should  be  sown  in  shallow  boxes  filled  with  vegetable  mold  and 
eand,  and  but  lightly  covered  with  fine  shreds  of  moss  from  the  swamps, 
and  this  kept  constantly  saturated  with  water,  until  the  plants  appear, 
after  which  only  water  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  moderately  wet  need  be 
applied, 

Viburnum  (Arrow-Wood,  Cranberry  Tree).— A  large  genus  of  ele- 
gant ornamental  shrubs,  a  few  bearing  edible  but  not  very  highly  prized 
fruit.  The  common  Snowball  tree  is  only  a  variety  of  the  wild  Cran- 
berry tree  (V.  Opulus)  of  the  swamps  of  our  Northern  States  and 
Great  Britain.  The  Chinese  Snowball  ( V.  plicatum)  is  a  more  recent 
introduction,  and  even  more  highly  prized  than  the  older  favorite. 
Propagated  by  layers ;  some  of  the  species  by  cuttings  of  the  mature 
wood  ;  others,  like  the  Chinese  Snowball,  by  cuttings  of  the  young,  im- 
mature shoots  taken  off  with  a  heel  and  planted  in  sand  under  glass. 

Vitex  (Chaste  Tree). — A  genus  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  evergreen 
and  deciduous  shrubs  and  trees.  They  are  rarely  seen  in  cultivation, 
although  the  Chaste  tree  (  V.  Agnus-  Castus)  from  Southern  Europe,  is 
sometimes  found  in  old  gardens  in  the  North,  but  more  common  South. 
The  Chinese  Cut-leaved  Chaste  tree  is  also  occasionally  cultivated,  and 
is  very  nearly  hardy  in  the  latitude  of  New  York  City.  Propagated  by 
layers,  or  ripe  wood  cuttings  planted  in  a  sheltered  position  m  autumn. 

Vttts  (Grape). — An  important  genus  of  climbing  shrubs,  bearing 
edible  fruit  in  clusters.  The  number  of  species  undetermined,  as  the 
opinions  of  botanists  differ  in  regard  to  the  value  of  the  variable  specific 
characteristics  for  the  purposes  of  classification.  The  European  varie- 
ties of  the  grape  are  supposed  to  have  descended  from  one  species — viz., 
V.  vinifera — and  the  cultivated  American  varieties  from  several  indige- 
nous epecies,  through  natural  variations,  or  by  crossing  and  hybridizing 
under  domestication.  There  are  also  hybrids  between  the  European 
and  American  species,  and  various  grades  of  intermixtures  of  species 
and  varieties.  Propagation  by  seeds  is  mostly  practiced  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  new  varieties — which  is  not  at  all  difficult — from  any  of  the 
improved  cultivated  varieties.  Seeds  from  black  varieties— like  the  Con- 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS, 


303 


cord — sometimes  give  pure  white  or  greenish-colored  varieties,  even  hi 
absence  of  any  attempt  to  cross-fertilize  the  flowers.  Still,  it  is  always 
best  to  employ  artificial  fertilization  where  hybrids  or  any  intermixture 
of  varieties  are  desired ;  for,  if  such  operations 
are  left  to  chance,  the  results  are  very  uncertain. 
Grape  seeds  should  be  removed  from  the  fruit 
when  i-ipe,  and  then  mixed  with  sand  and  pre- 
served in  a  moist  condition  until  spring,  then 
sown  in  boxes  under  glass  or  in  the  open  ground, 
and  covered  about  one-half  inch  deep.  For  the 
hardy  species,  the  seeds  will  germinate  more 
freely  if  placed  where  they  will  freeze  during 
winter  than  if  stored  where  no  frost  will  reach 
them.  Mice  are  usually  so  abundant,  and  so  fond 
of  grape  seeds,  that  it  is  seldom  safe  to  sow  them 
in  the  fall,  otherwise  this  would  be  the  best  plan, 
and  for  all  kinds.  The  seedlings  should  be  trans- 
planted into  nursery  rows  when  a  year  old,  and 
the  plants  set  out  about  four  feet  apart  each  way 
and  trained  to  a  single  cane  and  a  stake  until  they 
bear  fruit,  then  those  worth  preserving  may  be 
increased  by  any  of  the  usual  methods  of  propa- 
gation and  the  others  destroyed.  But  with  the 
most  careful  selection  of  parent  plants  to  raise 
seedlings  from,  the  chances  are  not  more  than 
one  in  a  thousand  of  obtaining  a  variety  superior 
— or  even  equal— to  the  best  of  those  already  in 
cultivation.  I  do  not  say  this  to  discourage  any 
one  who  has  the  inclination  and  time  to  spend  in 
making  experiments  in  this  direction,  for  we  need 
far  better  varieties  of  the  native  Grape  than  any 
we  now  possess ;  but  multiplying  varieties  with- 
out a  corresponding  advance  in  the  intrinsic 
merits  of  those  produced  has  already  gone  far 
enough — in  fact,  too  far,  for  the  general  good  of 
this  branch  of  horticulture.  The  most  common 
modes  of  propagating  the  grape  are  by  cuttings, 
layers,  and  grafting.  In  making  what  are  called 
ripe  wood  cuttings,  the  past  season's  growth  is 
used ;  that  is,  shoots  that  have  been  produced 
during  the  summer  are  taken  for  cuttings  in  the 
fall.  That  which  is  strong,  vigorous  and  well 
ripened  is  to  be  preferred,  but  overgrown  canes 
do  not  always  make  the  best  cuttings,  or  strike 
root  as  readily  as  those  of  medium  size.  The 
best  length  for  cuttings  is  a  moot  point.  Among 
vineyardists  in  Europe  they  use  very  long  cut- 
tings, while  we  prefer  much  shorter  ones,  and  think  that  we  know  that 


Fig.  100. 

GRAPE   CUTTING. 


304  PROPAGATION"   OF   PLANTS. 

they  arc  the  best.  A  cutting  of  six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  when 
properly  planted,  will  produce  as  good  or  better  plant  than  one  twice 
that  length.  Furthermore,  no  modem  scientific  horticulturists  would 
plant  cuttings  in  a  vineyard  where  the  vines  are  to  remain  and  bear 
fruit,  any  more  than  he  would  plant  Apple  seed  in  an  orchard  instead  of 
trees ;  and  yet  European  vineyards  are  to  this  day  planted  with  cuttings 
instead  of  rooted  plants,  just  as  they  were  two  or  three  thousand  years 
ago,  and  about  the  same  class  of  implements  are  used  in  their  cultiva- 
tion. The  cuttings  should  be  made  in  autumn,  and  before  the  vines 
have  been  subjected  to  a  very  low  temperature.  When  the  vines  are 
pruned,  the  canes  may  be  cut  into  lengths  of  six  to  eight  inches,  leaving 
not  less  than  two  buds  on  each,  as  shown  in  figure  100.  If  the  wood  is 
short  jointed,  a  cutting  of  this  length  will  have  three,  and  perhaps  four 
buds  upon  it ;  if  so  they  are  all  the  better,  as  roots  usually  start  from 
each  bud  although  not  always  the  first  season.  The  lower  end  of  the 
cutting  should  be  cut  off  smooth  and  close  up  to  the  base  of  tne  bud,  as 
shown,  and  the  top  an  inch  above  the  bud.  When  the  cuttings  are  pre- 
pared, they  may  be  buried  in  sand  or  moss  in  a  cellar,  or  in  a  dry  place 
in  the  open  ground  and  below  the  reach  of  frost.  In  spring  the  cuttings 


.  101.  SINGLE-BUD    CUTTING.  Fig.  102. 


are  taken  out  and  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  other  ripe  wood  cut- 
tings, the  upper  bud  being  left  just  level  with,  or  a  half  inch  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

In  the  fall  the  rooted  cuttings  are  taken  up  and  heeled-in,  and  pro- 
tected in  winter  if  necessary.  In  warm  climates,  and  where  the  ground 
does  not  freeze  to  any  considerable  depth  in  winter,  the  cuttings  may  be 
planted  out  in  the  vineyard  in  the  fall,  the  long  roots  shortened,  and  the 
young  cane  cut  back  to  within  two  buds  of  the  old  wood.  In  some 
localities,  mulching  the  cutting  bed  will  be  beneficial  in  keeping  it  moist, 
but  in  others  it  might  do  more  harm  than  good  ;  but  the  cultivator  of 
such  plants  must  use  nis  own  judgment  in  such  matters,  as  he  is  sup- 
posed to  know  something  of  the  climate  of  the  region  wherein  he  is 
living.  Nearly  all  of  our  cultivated  varieties  of  the  grape  may  be  readily 
propagated  by  cuttings  in  the  open  ground,  but  an  occasional  one,  like 
the  Delaware  and  Norton's  Virginia,  require  a  little  more  care  than 
others  ;  the  cuttings  must  be  kept  in  a  moist  and  rather  warm  place 
during  winter  in  order  to  have  the  root-forming  process  sc-mewhat 
advanced  by  the  time  they  are  needed  for  planting.  What  are  called 
single-bud  cuttings  are  made  of  the  same  kind  of  wood  as  the  long  cut- 
tings, but  with  only  one  bud  on  each,  as  shoAvn  in  figure  101,  which 
represents  the  cutting  of  the  usual  size  and  length.  Some  propa- 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS. 


305 


gators  cut  off  a  slice  of  the  wood  on  the  lower  side,  as  shown  in 
figure  102,  thereby  exposing  more  of  the  alburnum  than  when  merely 
severed  at  the  ends.  But  the  shape  of  the  cutting  may  be  varied  to  suit 
the  fancy  of  the  propagator,  so  long  as  a  sufficient  amount  of  wood — 
but  not  too  much— is  left  attached  to  the  bud.  These  single  bud  or 
short  cuttings  are  usually  employed  for  propagating  scarce  varieties, 
and  under  glass  during  the  winter  months.  The  cuttings  are  planted  hi 
shallow  boxes  or  frames  filled  with  pure  sand,  and  then  placed  in  a 
propagating  house  where  they  can  be  given  gentle  bottom  heat.  These 
cuttings  may  be  laid  flat  or  thrust  into  the  sand  at  a  slight  angle,  but 
the  bud  ought  not  to  be  covered  much  more  than  a  half  inch  when  in 
position.  Water  must  be  applied  liberally,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
cutting  bed  kept  at  about  sixty  or  seventy  degrees  until  the  cuttings  are 
well  furnished  with  roots,  and  the  new  growth  from  the  bud  is  from  two 
to  three  inches  in  height,  then  remove  the  cuttings  from  the  sand  and 
pot  off  singly  in  two  or  three  inch  pots.  After  potting,  the  plants  may 
be  returned  to  the  frames,  or  placed  in  others  where  the  air  will  be 
somewhat  confined  and  moist  for  a  few  days,  or  until  the  plants  have 
become  established  in  their  new  position.  Single-eye  cuttings  may  be 
forced  early  in  winter,  but  the  most  usual  practice  is  to  delay  the  opera- 
tion until  about  the  first  of  February  in  this  climate.  The  wood,  how- 
ever, to  be  used  for  cuttings  should  be  taken  in  early  in  the  winter  and 
stored  in  the  cellar,  or  where  it  will  not  become  dry  and  shrivelled.  If 
by  accident  it  should  get  very  dry,  the  cuttings  may  be  thrown  into  warm 
water  and  allowed  to  soak  a  few  hours  before  placing  them  in  the  sand. 
Cuttings  of  the  green  or  unripe  wood  are  sometimes  employed  in 
propagating  rare  and  scarce  va- 
rieties, but  unless  the  plants  are 
given  extra  care,  they  are  seldom 
as  strong  and  healthy  as  those 
raised  from  mature  wood.  The 
mode  of  operation  is  usually  as 
follows  :  In  the  autumn  pot  the 
vines  to  be  propagated  or  plant 
in  a  border  within  the  propa- 
gating house,  making  the  soil  so 
rich  that  the  vines  will  not  suffer 
for  want  of  nutriment.  When 
they  have  made  a  growth  of  a 
foot  or  more,  some  of  the  shoots 
may  be  removed  for  cuttings,  but 
do  not  cut  back  all  the  young 
growth  at  one  time,  as  this  would  103^cuTTi^  OF  GREEN  WOOD. 

severely  check  the  vine,  but  a 

few  cuttings  at  a  time  may  be  taken  without  injury.  The  young  shoots 
may  then  be  divided  into  pieces  of  two  buds  each,  the  lower  end  cut  off 
square  across  close  to  the  base  of  a  bud,  and  the  upper  leaf  left  entire, 
as  shown  in  figure  108.  The  cuttings,  when  prepared,  are  planted  in 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


sand,  about  two-thirds  of  their  length,  covered  as  shown— A  represents 
the  surface  of  the  sand.  These  green  cuttings  must  be  placed  in  close 
frames,  frequently  syringed  overhead,  and  the  temperature  should  not 
be  allowed  to  fall  much  below  sixty  degrees,  and  if  kept  at  eighty  or 
ninety  degrees  the  roots  will  push  out  all  the  more  rapidly.  These  cut- 
tings may  thenceforward  receive  the  same  treatment  as  those  of  ordinary 
tender  greenhouse  plants,  and  in  spring  transferred  to  frames  in  the 
open  ground ;  or,  if  well  ripened  off,  set  out  in  nursery  rows,  when  the 
weather  will  permit,  in  early  summer. 

Layering  is  one  of  the  most  simple  and  certain  modes  of  propagating 
the  Grape  and  it  is  no  doubt  the  oldest,  for  whenever  the  canes  of  wild 
vines  come  in  contact  with  the  earth  they  emit 
roots  and  thus  become  layers.  But  to  facilitate 
the  emission  of  roots  we  bend  down  a  cane  and 
cover  that  part  on  which  we  desire  roots  with 
soil,  and  this  layer  is  but  a  cutting  which  is  left 
attached  to  the  parent  plant,  and  derives  nour- 
ishment therefrom,  until  it  has  produced  roots 
of  its  own.  Layers  may  be  put  down  in  fall  or 


Fig.  104.—  LAYERING  THE  GRAPE. 

spring,  and  the  young  canes  of  the  season's  growth  are  preferable  to 
older  wood,  as  they  produce  roots  the  most  freely  and  readily,  no  notch- 
ing, twisting  or  tonguing  being  required.  Vines  grown  expressly  for 
layers  should  be  planted  about  six  feet  apart,  and  headed  back  in  the 
fall  in  order  to  force  out  a  larger  number  of  strong  canes  the  following 
season.  The  growing  canes  may  be  layered  in  summer,  but  the  better 
plan  is  to  allow  them  to  grow  unchecked  the  entire  season  and  layered 
the  next,  each  cane  making  one  strong  layer  after  it  is  cut  back  to  a 
convenient  length.  But  if  all  the  canes  of  a  vine  are  layered,  it  would 
too  severely  check  its  growth,  and  the  more  usual  practice  is  to  use  only 
one  or  two  of  the  canes  in  any  one  season,  and  cut  back  the  others  so 
that  new  shoots  will  be  produced  for  use  the  following  year.  If  a  larger 
number  of  layers  are  desired  than  can  be  secured  by  making  one  plant 


SELECT   LISTS   OF   PLANTS;  307 

of  each  layer,  then  some  of  the  strongest  shoots  may  be  laid  in  a 
shallow  trench,  as  shown  in  figure  104.  Select  the  largest  cane  or 
canes — as  the  case  may  be — for  layers,  and  cut  it  back  to  six  or  seven 
feet,  if  it  is  longer ;  then  cut  the  other  canes  back  to  within  three  or 
four  buds  of  their  base.  In  spring,  after  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  layer 
the  cane  as  follows  :  Dig  a  shallow  trench  four  to  six  inches  deep  and 
of  a  sufficient  length  to  receive  the  cane  ;  now  bend  it  down  and  fasten 
it  in  the  trench  by  hooked  pegs.  The  cane  may  be  bent  in  almost  any 
direction  from  the  parent  stock  most  convenient,  but  it  should  be  laid 
flat  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  The  layered  cane  may  remain  in  this 
position  uncovered  until  the  new  shoots  appear  along  its  entire  length^ 
and  if  allowed  to  grow  every  bud  will  produce  a  shoot  and  a  plant,  but 
it  is  better  to  rub  off  at  least  one  half  of  the  buds  and  raise  a  less 
number  of  stronger  plants.  When  the  young  shoots  have  grown  to 
be  five  or  six  inches  long,  a  little  soil  may  be  drawn  in  and  the  layered 
cane  covered  with  an  inch  or  more  of  soil,  and  a  small  stake  placed  by 
the  side  of  each  shoot,  to  which  it  should  be  tied  later  in  the  season.  In 
the  accompanying  illustration  the  layer  is  shown  in  the  trench  as  it  ap- 
pears when  the  young  upright  shoots  are  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  also 
the  roots  as  they  appear  later.  The  shoots  (B,  (7,)  growing  from  the 
main  stem  may  be  preserved  for  layering  the  following  season,  or  for 
bearing  f rait.  In  the  fall  the  layered  cane  is  dug  up  and  divided  into 
as  many  plants  as  there  are  upright  shoots,  each  with  the  roots  at  its 
base.  The  principal  advantage  of  layering  as  a  mode  of  propagation  is 
that  certain  species  and  varieties,  which  are  not  readily  propagated  by 
cuttings,  may  be  made  to  produce  roots  on  layers. 

Grafting  the  Grape  is  a  very  ancient  mode  of  propagation,  and  is  fully 
described  by  most  of  the  old  Roman  authors  of  works  on  agriculture. 
The  cions  may  be  inserted  by  any  and  all  the  different  methods  practised 
in  grafting  woody  plants— cleft,  triangular,  side,  tongue  and  splice,  and 
even  by  in-arching  and  approach.  The  most  usual  method  is  to  insert 
the  cion  in  the  crown  of  the  plant  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  tying 
it  in  with  bass  or  other  similar  material,  and  then  banking  up  with  earth 
about  the  cion  ;  no  wax  of  any  kind  is  used  in  the  operation,  the  earth 
being  sufficient  to  exclude  air  and  prevent  drying.  The  proper  time  or 
season  for  grafting  is  still— as  it  has  been  for  thousands  of  years— a  moot 
point  among  vineyardists.  The  old  Romans  could  not  agree  as  to  the 
best  time  for  grafting  the  Grape  in  the  vineyards  about  Rome  ;  for  while 
Julius  Atticus  said  that  the  time  for  .grafting  was  from  the  first  of  Novem- 
ber until  the  first  of  June,  Columella  objected  to  this  prolonged  season 
and  thought  the  better  time  was  in  spring  after  the  cold  weather  is  past. 
The  same  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  vineyardists  at  this  day, 
probably  because  climate  as  well  as  experience  differ.  My  own  expe- 
rience is  in  favor  of  early  grafting  either  in  the  fall  or  winter,  then  pro- 
tecting the  cions  from  frost  either  by  covering  with  an  inverted  flower 
pot  and  straw,  as  I  described  many  years  ago  in  the  "Grape  Culturist," 
or  by  merely  covering  with  a  few  forkfuls  of  coarse  stable  manure.  In 


308  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

warm  climates  no  such  protection  is  required,  and  a  cion  set  early  in 
the  winter  becomes  fully  united  to  the  stock  before  a  rapid  flow  of  sap 
begins  in  spring,  and  this  no  doubt  is  why  Julius  Atticus  recommended 
early  grafting  of  the  Grape  in  his  time,  or  nearly  two  thousand  years 
ago.  But  early  spring  grafting  is  most  generally  practised  in  cold 
climates,  the  cions  being  stored  in  a  cool  place  where  they  will  remain 
dormant  until  wanted  for  use.  The  earlier  they  are  inserted  the  more 
likely  they  are  to  unite,  and  if  not  inserted  early  it  is  better  to  wait  until 
the  leaves  have  unfolded  on  the  stock  and  the  sap  has  become  somewhat 
thickened  through  evaporation  from  the  leaves.  When  vines  are  grafted 
on  roots  below  the  surface,  the  cion,  if  not  prevented,  will  throw  out 
roots  of  its  own,  and  the  benefit  of  a  strong,  old  stock  will  be  only  tem- 
porary ;  but  if  these  surface  roots  are  removed  once  or  twice  a  year  the 
old  stock  may  continue  to  exercise  its  influence  upon  the  cion  for  many 
a  year.  Grafting  by  approach  above  ground  is  readily  accomplished  by 
the  usual  mode  during  the  early  summer  months,  and  this  is  probably 
preferable  to  grafting  below  the  surface  where  it  is  necessary  to  use 
what  are  called  "phylloxera  resisting  stocks,"  as  some  of  our  native 
species  of  the  vine  are  called  in  France  and  California. 

Weigela.—  See  Diervilla. 

Wistaria. — Very  rapid- growing,  woody,  climbing  plants,  with  pea- 
shaped  flowers  in  long,  drooping  clusters.  One  species  ( W.  frutescens), 
native  of  the  United  States,  and  one  ( W.  Sinensis),  in  China.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  both  species  in  cultivation,  nearly  all  now  common  in 
our  gardens.  Propagated  by  seeds,  which  are  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance on  old  plants,  by  layers  and  grafting.  Cuttings  do  not  usually 
strike  root  very  readily  when  planted  in  the  open  ground,  but  will  suc- 
ceed if  planted  in  sand  under  glass  where  they  will  receive  moderate 
heat. 

Zanthoxylnm  (Prickly  Ash).— A  small  genus  of  ornamental  and  use- 
ful shrubs ;  the  bark,  leaves  and  fruit  extremely  pungent  and  aromatic. 
The  common  native  species  found  in  our  Northern  woods  is  known  as 
"Toothache  tree."  Another  species  is  found  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  several  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  other  tropical  countries, 
besides  in  China  and  Japan.  One  species  from  the  latter  country  (Z.  pi- 
perituni)  is  nearly  hardy  in  my  grounds,  the  terminal  shoots  only  being 
injured  in  winter.  Propagated  the  most  readily  by  cuttings  of  the  roots. 


HERBS,    TUBERS   AKD   BULBS.  309 

CHAPTER    XX. 
HERBS,   TUBERS    AND    BULBS. 

In  the  following  pages  I  purpose  giving  only  very  brief 
hints  in  regard  to  the  propagation  of  herbaceous,  bulbous, 
tuberous,  and  some  suifrutescent  perennial  plants  omitted 
in  the  preceding  chapters.  Although  the  principles  gov- 
erning their  growth  and  propagation  are  the  same  as 
with  other  kinds,  still  it  may  often  occur  that  a  hint  in 
relation  to  some  simple  mode  of  increasing  a  species  or 
variety  is  of  more  value  to  the  inexperienced  than  a 
learned  treatise  on  the  subject.  Certain  modes  of  propa- 
gation well  known  to  one  person  may  not  be  to  another ; 
consequently,  in  attempting  to  impart  information  in  a 
work  like  this,  the  author  is  obliged  to  presume  some- 
what upon  the  inexperience  of  his  readers.  As  a  rule,  it 
may  be  said  that  all  kinds  of  herbaceous  plants,  such  as 
Carnations,  Phloxes,  Petunias,  Verbenas,  Snap-dragons, 
and  all  similar  kinds  having  stems  bearing  leaves,  may 
be  more  or  less  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the 
tender  or  half-ripened  shoots,  placed  in  frames  or  under 
a  bell  glass,  where  the  air  will  be  somewhat  confined  and 
moist,  while  at  the  same  time  a  moderately  high  tempera- 
ture can  be  secured.  In  temperate  climates  this  mode  of 
propagation  may  be  practised  with  success  in  ordinary 
hot-bed  frames,  without  bottom  or  artificial  heat,  during 
the  summer  months. 

The  soft-wooded  greenhouse  plants,  such  as  Geraniums, 
Fuchsias,  Lophospermums,  Begonias,  etc.,  may  be  in- 
creased under  the  same  conditions,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
more  succulent  kinds,  like  the  Ageratums,  Alternan- 
theras,  Alyssums  anct  Coleuses  ;  but  a  propagating  house, 
built  especially  for  such  purposes,  is  always  preferable  to 
cheaper  structures  of  this  kind,  because  of  the  facilities 


_31D  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

afforded  for  controlling  the  temperature  in  our  change- 
able climate.  In  making  cuttings  of  soft-wooded  and 
herbaceous  plants,  it  is  always  best  to  cut  through  close 
under  a  joint  or  bud,  although  there  are  kinds  which 
strike  root  so  readily  that  it  will  make  very  little  or  no 
'difference  where  or  how  the  stems  are  divided.  The 
leaves  on  the  lower  part  of  the  cutting — that  part  to  be 
buried  in  the  sand  or  soil — must  be  removed,  else  they 
are  likely  to  decay  and  increase  the  danger  of  what  is 
termed  "  damping  off."  It  may  also  be  advisable  in  some 
cases  to  remove  a  part  of  each  leaf  on  the  cutting,  espe- 
cially if  the  leaves  are  large  and  soft ;  but  with  most 
plants  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots,  the 
terminal  leaves  may  be  left  intact. 

In  the  application  of  water  to  such  cuttings,  the  propa- 
gator must  ever  depend  upon  his  own  observations  and 
judgment.  The  cuttings  must  not  be  allowed  to  flag  for 
want  of  moisture,  neither  should  the  atmosphere  in  the 
frames  be  kept  constantly  saturated.  Ventilation  must 
also  be  attended  to,  and  more  air  admitted  as  the  cuttings 
advance  in  growth  and  in  the  production  of  roots,  than 
when  first  placed  in  the  frames  or  under  bell  glasses. 
Cuttings  of  the  hardy  and  half-hardy  herbaceous  plants, 
such  as  Carnations,  Phloxes  and  Hollyhocks,  do  not  re- 
quire so  high  a  temperature  to  insure  the  production  of 
roots  as  those  of  the  Coleus,  Acanthus,  Achimenes,  Bego- 
nias and  other  kinds,  natives  of  tropical  climates.  There 
are  usually  more  cuttings  lost  by  attempting  to  force 
their  growth  by  a  high  temperature  than  in  keeping  it 
too  low. 

-  In  propagating  bulbous,  tuberous,  and  other  plants  with 
large,  fleshy  roots,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  no 
great  amount  of  moisture  is  required  until  the  leaves  have 
been  produced  and  growth  has  fairly  begun.  They  all 
have  their  seasons  of  growth  and  of  rest,  and  this  natural 
we  may  term  it — has  been  acquired  through 


HERB3,    TUBERS   AND   BULBS.  oil 

the  influence  of  the  climate  of  the  region  in  which  they 
have  lived  for  an  unknown  number  of  centuries.  Some 
kinds  of  plants  seem  to  submit  more  readily  to  artificial 
conditions  than  others,  but  the  most  satisfactory  results 
will  usually  be  secured  by  keeping  very  near  to  nature  in 
dealing  with  the  plants  of  any  country  or  clime. 

Acanthacece  (Acanthus  Family).— Mostly  tropical  herbs;  a  fc\V 
climbers,  as  in  Thunbcrgia,  but  the  most  highly  prize:!  belong  to  the 
genus  Acanthus,  these  being  large,  stately,  ornamental  perennials,  much 
admired  for  their  beautiful  foliage.  Very  useful  plants  for  bedding  out 
in  summer.  Propagated  by  seeds  sown  under  glass,  or  by  division  of 
the  roots  while  the  plants  are  in  a  semi-dormant  condition  in  fall  or 
winter. 

Amarantacetz  (Amaranth  Family). — A  large  family;  mostly  low 
annual  herbs  ;  a  few  shrubs,  and  only  a  few  genera  considered  worthy 
of  cultivation,  and  among  these  are  the  well  known  Amarantus,  Cclo- 
sia,  GompJirena,  Alter  nanthera,  and  Ircsinc  or  Achyranthes.  The  species 
of  the  two  last  named  genera  are  perennials,  and  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties  in  cultivation,  valued  for  their  handsomely  colored  foli- 
age. To  insure  a  perpetuation  of  the  bright  color  and  variegation  of  the 
leaves,  the  plants  should  be  propagated  by  cuttings  taken  from  stock 
plants  kept  over  for  the  purpose.  Cuttings  taken  off  in  March  and 
April  will  usually  become  sufficiently  strong  and  well  supplied  with 
roots  for  planting  out  later  in  spring. 

Amaryllldacece  (Amaryllis  Family).— A  very  large  family  of  ele- 
gant ornamental  plants,  mostly  bulbous,  but  a  few,  such  as  the  Agave 
(American  Aloe)  have  stems  and  large  fleshy  roots.  The  most  familiar 
genera  are  the  Amaryllis,  Crinum,  Pancratium,  Narcissus,  Galanthus 
(Snowdrop),  Hippeastrum,  and  Ilcsmanthus.  A  few,  such  as  the  Narcis- 
sus and  Galanthus,  are  hardy,  but  they  are  mainly  greenhouse  plants. 
New  varieties  are  raised  from  seeds,  and  as  these  arc  rather  fleshy  they 
should  not  be  covered  very  deep,  especially  if  soil  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. I  have  had  excellent  success  by  scattering  the  seed  over  the 
surface  of  leaf  mold,  and  then  spreading  over  them  a  few  shreds  of 
moss,  covering  all  with  a  bell  glass  or  a  pane  of  window  glass  laid  flat 
on  the  top  of  the  seed-pan  or  pot.  The  young  plants  may  be  potted  off 
as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to  be  readily  handled.  All  of  the  dif- 
ferent genera  require  a  deep  rich  soil  with  good  drainage,  whether  cul- 
tivated in  pots  or  in  the  garden.  Varieties  are  propagated  by  offsets, 
which  are  usually  produced  in  great  abundance,  although  in  a  few  kinds 
the  old  bulbs  produce  buds  rather  slowly  and  sparingly. 

Apocynacece  (Dogbane  Family).— A  family  composed  of  trees,  erect 
and  twining  shrubs,  and  many  low  herbs,  mostly  containing  an  acrid, 


PPOPAGATlON   OF   PLANTS. 


poisonous  juice.  The  common  Oleander  (Neriuni),  is  a  well-known  ever- 
green shrub  belonging  to  this  family.  Among  the  low  herbaceous  and 
evergreen  genera,  the  Apocynum  (Indian  Hemp),  Amsonia,  and  Vinca 
(Periwinkle),  are  common  border  ornamental  plants.  Propagated  by 
cuttings  and  divisions  of  the  clumps  or  stools  in  spring. 

Aroldece  or  Aracece  (Arum  Family).— A  large  order  of  herbaceous 
perennial  plants  with  tuberous  rhizomes.  The  most  familiar  genera  in 
cultivation  are  Alocasia,  Amorpliophallus,  Anthurium,-  Caladium,  Coloca- 
sla  (Tanya),  Differibachia,  and  Itichardla  (Calla).  The  flowers  are  very 
minute,  unisexual  or  perfect,  produced  on  a  central  organ  called  a  spa- 
dix,  and  this  surrounded  by  a  large  spathe,  which  is  sometimes — as  in 
the  Amoi*phaphallus  Rivieri — two  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  and  emiting  a 


Fig.  103. — COLOCASIA  ESCULENTA. 

most  disagreeable  odor.  The  rhizomes  of  some  of  the  genera  contain  an 
acrid  watery  juice,  as  in  the  wild  Indian  Turnip  (Ariscema),  while  in 
others,  such  as  the  Colocasia  esculcnta,  they  are  edible  when  cooked. 
This  edible  species  is  known  in  our  Southern  States,  where  it  has  become 
naturalized,  as  the  Tanya.  It  is  largely  employed  as  a  bedding-out 
plant  in  the  Northern  States,  the  leaves  growing  to  an  immense  size,  and 
the  general  habit  and  form  of  the  plant  is  shown  in  figure  105.  The 
Richardia  or  Calla  Lily,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  well-known  and  common 
window  and  greenhouse  plant.  The  Caladiums  are  what  may  be  termed 
hot-house  plants,  requiring  a  high  temperature  and  moist  atmosphere  to 
insure  the  full  development  of  their  brilliant  colored  and  handsomely 


HEHES,   TUBERS   AND   BULBS.  313 

variegated  leaves.  The  Differibachias  are  of  a  more  stocky  growth  than 
the  Caladiums,  the  large  leaves  springing  from  a  central  fleshy  stem, 
which  in  some  species  is  six  to  eight  feet  long.  This  genus  possesses  a 
very  poisonous  acrid  juice,  and  the  propagator  should  bear  this  in  mind 
when  dividing  the  plants  or  removing  the  leaves.  The  Antfiuriums  are 
perhaps  the  most  showy  of  the  family,  on  account  of  the  immense  size 
of  the  bract-like  spathe,  which  bend  backward  instead  of  folding  around 
the  spadix,  as  in  the  common  Calla  and  others.  All  members  of  this 
family  are  moisture-loving  plants,  and  need  a  copious  supply,  especially 
when  growing  rapidly.  Propagated  by  seed,  and  by  divisions  of  the 
corms,  or  the  naturally  produced  offsets.  Some  of  the  genera  throw  off 
small  tubers  in  large  numbers,  others  few ;  but  on  all  old  and  strong 
tubers,  small  buds  may  be  found  which  may  be  cut  out  when  the  plants 
are  at  rest,  and  if  placed  in  gentle  heat  will  usually  produce  roots  from 
around  the  crown  or  eyes.  Seeds  of  the  Calla  will  usually  produce 
blooming  plants  under  favorable  conditions  in  a  twelvemonth,  but  for 
those  of  some  of  the  other  genera,  two  to  three  years  are  required  from 
seed  to  obtain  even  plants  of  moderate  size. 

Begonlacecv  (Begonia  Family). — A  small  family,  and  only  one  genus 
in  cultivation,  and  that  the  Begonia ;  but  of  this  there  are  at  least  three 
hundred  species  and  an  innumerable  number  of  garden  hybrids  and 
varieties.  The  Begonias  are  mostly  succulent  herbaceous  or  somewhat 
woody-stemmed  plants,  with  unequal-sided  leaves,  which  no  doubt  sug- 
gested the  common  name  of  u  Elephant's  Ear."  In  some  of  the  species 
the  roots  are  very  thick  and  fleshy,  in  others,  distinctly  tuberous.  The 
flowers  are  usually  showy,  sometimes  of  enormous  size,  and  of  various 
colors — white,  rose,  scarlet,  yellow,  and  all  intermediate  shades.  Seeds 
minute,  but  produced  in  great  abundance.  One  species,  the  _B.  soco- 
trana,  has  an  herbaceous  annual  stem,  at  the  base  of  which  small  bulb- 
lets  are  produced,  and  these  should  be  kept  dry  during  the  summer 
months  and  forced  into  growth  during  the  winter.  All  the  Begonias  are 
of  easy  culture,  thriving  in  a  warm  greenhouse.  Keadily  and  rapidly 
propagated  by  seed,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  stems  and  leaves.  The  mi- 
nute seeds  should  be  sown  on  the  surface  of  light  soil  or  pulverized 
charcoal  and  moss,  and  not  covered  with  soil,  but  the  boxes  or  pans 
covered  with  a  pane  of  window  glass  or  a  common  bell  glass.  Water 
should  be  given  freely  and  often  through  a  fine  rose  syringe  or  atomizer, 
and  the  temperature  kept  at  about  sixty  degrees,  or  slightly  above. 

Boragtnacece  (Borage  Family). — Mostly  rough,  hahy,  annual  and 
perennial  herbaceous  plants.  Some,  like  the  common  Comfrey  (Sym- 
phytum),  with  thick  fleshy  roots  containing  a  mucilaginous  juice.  T.he 
genera  most  highly  valued  are  AncJiusa,  Mcrtensia  (Lungwort),  Heliotro- 
pium  (Heliotrope),  Myosotis  (Forget-me-not),  and  Symphytum  (Comfrey). 
The  different  species  and  varieties  of  the  Anchusa  and  Symphytum  are 
usually  propagated  by  division  of  the  clumps  or  cuttings  of  the  roots, 
and  the  others  by  seeds  or  cuttings  of  the  tender  shoots. 


314  .PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Bromeliacece  (Pine-Apple  Family).— The  most  familiar  genera  of 
this  Family  are  Ananassa  (Pine-apple),  ^Echmca,  Bilbergia,  Bromelia,  and 
Tillandsia,  one  of  the  species  of  the  latter  being  the  well  known  Spanish 
moss  of  Florida  and  other  parts  of  the  South.  The  Ananassa  or  Pine- 
apple is  the  most  important  genus  in  this  family,  and  now  exists  in  both 
its  wild  and  cultivated  state  in  all  the  warmer  or  tropical  countries  of 
America.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  all  are 
propagated  by  cuttings  made  of  the  sprouts  which  naturally  spring  up 
around  the  base  of  the  main  stem.  When  the  fruit  is  cut  off  the  sprouts 
appear  in  more  or  less  abundance,  and  these  are  slipped  off  and  planted 
in  sand  where  they  can  be  given  bottom  heat.  The  <d£chmcast  Bilbergias, 
and  Bromelias  arc  readily  propagated  in  the  same  way,  all  requiring  a 
rather  high  temperature  and  abundance  of  water  to  insure  vigorous 
growth  and  free  blooming  plants.  When  at  rest  they  need  but  just  suf- 
ficient moisture  to  prevent  shrivelling. 

Cactacese  (Cactus  Family). — An  immense  order  or  family  of  succu- 
lent or  fleshy  plants,  mostly  destitute  of  true  leaves,  the  functions  of 
these  useful  organs  on  other  plants  being  performed  by  the  green  rind 
of  the  columnar,  flattened,  or  other  shaped  stems  and  branches.  These 
plants  arc  most  abundant  in  the  warmer  regions  of  North  and  South 
America,  but  some  of  the  species  grow  at  high  altitudes  in  the  tropics, 
and  others  extend  far  northward,  where  they  are  subjected  to  a  temper- 
ature many  degrees  below  zero  in  winter.  The  most  popular  and  best 
known  genera  are  Cereus,  Mammilaria,  Mclocactus,  Epiphyllum,  Echino- 
cactus,  Phyllocactus,  Opunlia,  and  Pcrcskia.  We  have  no  family  of  plants 
that  thrive  under  neglect  nor  respond  more  fully  to  good  care  than  the 
Cactuses.  They  all  need  moisture  while  growing,  and  very  little  or  none 
at  all  white  at  rest.  There  are  many  species  found  in  the  higher  regions 
of  the  West  and  South  that  withstand  a  temperature  of  ten  or  more 
degrees  below  zero  in  their  native  habitats,  where  rains  seldom  fall  in 
winter,  and  yet  these  same  species  are  quickly  destroyed  by  slight  freez- 
ing in  a  moist  climate  or  atmosphere.  Cactuses  from  the  cool  and  ele- 
vated regions  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Old  Mexico  should  not  be 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  when  cultivated  in  our  Atlantic 
States,  as  the  heat  is  often  much  greater  than  it  is  in  their  native  habi- 
tats, and  shade  during  the  middle  of  the  day  should  always  be  given  to 
plants  placed  outdoors  during  the  summer  months.  Propagation  is 
effected  by  seeds,  cuttings,  and  grafting.  Seeds  arc  rarely  employed 
except  for  producing  new  varieties,  but  cuttings  of  the  species  and 
varieties  with  columnar  and  branching  stems  strike  root  very  readily  if 
placed  in  sand  or  any  light,  loose  soil.  The  cuttings  should  be  watered 
very  sparingly  until  they  are  well  supplied  with  roots.  The  small  globu- 
lar Melon  and  Hedgehog  Cactuses  are  usually  propagated  by  removing 
the  small  sprouts  appearing  at  the  base  or  sides  of  the  old  plants.  Graft- 
ing the  smaller  species,  such  as  the  Crab  Cactuses  (Epiphyllum\  on  the 
Stronger,  upright-growing  species,  is  extensively  practised  by  florists,  and 
with  great  success.  The  stocks  usually  recommended  are  the  Pcrcskia 


HERBS,    TUBERS   AND   BULBS.  -315 

and  Cereus  for  the  Eplphyllums,  and  the  smaller,  globular-shaped  genera. 
For  many  years  I  have  employed  the  Cereus  speciossimus  as  a  stock  for 
the  varieties  of  Crab  Cactus  (Epiphyllum  tnmcatuin),  and  the  plants 
appear  to  thrive  as  well  as  on  other  and  stronger-growing  stocks.  In 
grafting,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  place  the  fresh  cut  surface  of  the  cion 
against  a  similar  surface  of  the  stock,  and  keep  the  two  in  contact  until 
a  union  is  formed.  When  small  species,  like  the  Crab  Cactuses,  are 
grafted,  it  is  best  to  use  a  wedge-shaped  cion  and  insert  it  into  a  cleft  at 
the  top  of  the  stock,  then  thrust  a  sliver  of  pine  wood  through  both  cion 
and  stock,  or  in  other  words,  pin  them  together.  A  sharp,  strong  spine 
of  a  cactus  will  answer  for  a  pin,  and  this  may  be  left  in  place  until  a 
firm  union  is  formed,  and  then  withdrawn  with  a  pair  of  nippers.  In 
grafting  the  small  globular-shaped  species  on  stocks  of  the  tall-growing 
kind,  scoop  out  a  little  of  the  pulpy  matter  from  the  top  of  the  stock, 
then  set  the  freshly  cut  cion  in  this  depression  and  tie  it  firmly  in  place. 
The  soil  for  Cactuses  should  be  made  up  of  rather  coarse  materials,  such 
as  partly  decomposed  sods,  with  plenty  of  drainage  when  grown  in  pots. 

Campanulaccce  (Bellflower  Family). — A  family  of  herbs  and  sub- 
shrubs.  The  genus  most  highly  prized  and  best  known  is  the  Campa- 
nula or  Bellflower.  Flowers  mostly  blue  or  white,  with  intermediate 
shades.  There  are  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial  species,  the  latter 
being  most  extensively  cultivated,  as  they  are  nearly  all  quite  hardy  and 
thrive  in  any  good  garden  soil.  Readily  propagated  by  seed  sown  in 
frames,  or  in  the  open  ground  in  spring,  and  by  divisions  of  the  roots. 

Capparidaccce  (Caper  Family). — Herbs  and  shrubs,  rarely  trees, 
distributed  throughout  the  warmer  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  There 
are  twenty-three  genera,  and  nearly  or  quite  three  hundred  species.  The 
best  known  genera  are  Capparis,  Cleome,  and  Cratccva.  The  latter  yields 
the  curious  Garlic  Pear  ( C.  Tapia),  of  Central  America,  a  tree  growing 
to  the  height  of  thirty  to  forty  feet.  Capparis  spinosa,  native  of  the 
Levant,  yields  the  well-known  Caper  of  commerce,  while  several  species 
Of  Clcoms  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  their  flowers.  All  readily 
propagated  by  seed,  or  cuttings  of  the  young,  tender  shoots  planted  in 
sand  under  glass. 

Caryophyllacecv  (Pink  Family).— A  very  large  family  of  low-grow- 
ing herbs,  consisting  of  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials.  The  most 
interesting  genera  are  Dianthus,  Lychnis,  Silene,  and  Cerastium.  Tht 
common  Carnations  (DiantJius  Caryophyllus),  especially  the  monthly  or 
perpetual  bloomers,  have  become  exceedingly  popular  of  late  years  and 
are  now  extensively  cultivated  by  florists,  as  they  bloom  most  freely 
during  the  winter  months.  They  succeed  best  in  a  cool  greenhouse,  or 
pits  where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  at  about  sixty  degrees  during 
the  day,  and  not  much  below  f orty-five  at  night.  The  plants  are  almost 
hardy,  but  require  a  moderate  heat  to  develop  the  flower  buds.  Propa- 
gated by  layers  and  cuttings,  and  new  varieties  are  raised  from  seed. 
Cuttings  strike  root  so  freely  that  this  is  the  usual  mode  of  propagation. 


31G  PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

They  should  be  taken  off  late  in  winter  or  early  spring1  and  planted  in 
pure  sand  under  glass,  but  they  do  not  require  a  high  temperature  or  a 
very  copious  supply  of  water  while  the  roots  are  being  produced.  A 
temperature  of  sixty  degrees  will  insure  the  production  of  roots,  and 
with  l^ss  danger  of  the  cuttings  damping  off  than  if  exposed  to  a  higher 
temperature.  The  cuttings  should  be  from  two  to  three  inches  long, 
the  base  cut  just  below  a  joint,  and  the  leaves  from  the  lower  part 
removed,  while  those  above  are  shortened  to  about  one-half  their  orig- 
inal length.  Carnation  cuttings  will  usually  strike  root  very  readily  in 
an  ordinary  greenhouse,  without  placing  them  in  close  frames  or  where 
they  will  receive  bottom  heat.  It  is  well  to  shade  the  cuttings,  or  pro- 
tect them  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  for  a  few  days  after  planting. 
A  few  species  of  Cerastium  (Mouse-ear  Chickweed)  are  cultivated  in 
greenhouses,  and  others  for  edgings  of  beds  in  summer  or  as  border 
plants.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Lychnis  and  Silenes,  and  all  are  readily 
propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  or  division  of  the  roots. 

Clstacece  (Cistus  or  Rock  Rose  Family). — A  small  order  of  elegant 
shrubs  or  sub-shrubs,  with  very  showy  flowers  of  various  colors,  from 
pure  white  to  purple  and  yellow.  The  best  known  genera  are  Cistus  and 
Ifelianttiemum.  There  are  many  species  and  varieties  of  Cist  us  in  culti- 
vation, some  of  them  quite  hardy  in  our  Northern  States ;  others  are 
tender,  requiring  the  temperature  of  a  cool  greenhouse  in  winter.  The 
flowers  are  very  handsome,  but  seldom  last  more  than  one  day ;  conse- 
quently are  of  little  value  for  cutting  or  using  in  bouquets.  The  IMian- 
tlicmums  are  very  similar  to  the  Rock  Rose  in  general  appearance,  but 
not  usually  of  as  strong  and  robust  habit.  Some  of  the  species  are 
annuals,  but  there  are  many  half  shrubby  perennials.  Propagated  by 
seeds,  division  of  the  clumps,  and  by  green  cuttings  planted  under  glass 
and  treated  as  usual  with  such  cuttings. 

Commelinacesce  (Spiderwort  Family). — A  large  and  widely  distrib- 
uted family  of  herbaceous  plants,  mostly  tropical.  Only  a  few  genera 
in  cultivation,  and  the  two  most  deserving  attention  are  Commdina  and 
Tradescantia.  The  latter  is  usually  represented  in  gardens  by  the  very 
common  Spiderwort  (T.  Virginica),  and  in  greenhouses  by  several  varie- 
ties of  the  Striped-leaved  Spiderwort  ( T.  zebrlnd).  The  Commelinas  are 
only  occasionally  cultivated ;  a  few  species  are  grown  in  greenhouses 
for  bedding  out  in  summer,  and  among  these  there  arc  several  tuber- 
ous-rooted kinds,  which  should  be  lifted  in  the  fall  and  stored  in  a  dry, 
warm  place  until  spring.  All  readily  propagated  by  seeds  and  divisions, 
and  the  trailing  kinds  by  cuttings  and  layers. 

Compositte  (Composite  Family). — This  is  the  most  extensive  family 
of  the  entire  vegetable  kingdom,  containing  between  seven  and  eight 
hundred  genera,  and  fully  ten  thousand  species.  They  are  mostly 
herbs,  but  a  few  being  shrubs ;  the  flowers,  collected  in  a  head  on  a 
common  receptacle,  usually  surrounded  by  an  involucre  bract,  as  seen 
in  the  common  Sunflower,  Artichoke  and  single  Zinnia.  The  genera 


HERBS,    TUBERS   AKD   BULBS. 


317 


alone  are  far  too  numerous  to  name  here,  and  I  can  only  mention  a  few 
of  the  most  important  and  valuable  among  the  herbaceous  perennials. 
Agter — only  a  few  perennial  species  are  cultivated.  The  popular  annual 
China  Aster  is  a  Callistcphus.  Artemisia — only  one  species  is  of  special 
value,  and  that  the  A.  Absintliiutn  (Wormwood),  a  low-growing,  hardy 
plant,  possessing  some  medicinal  properties,  and  another  is  largely  used 
for  flavoring  the  French  liqueur  known  as  absinthe.  Ant/iemis  nobilis  is 
the  well-known  garden  herb,  Chamomile.  Achillea,  or  Sneezeworts,  are 
mostly  low  perennial  weeds,  but  a  few  are  handsome  border  plants,  and 
A.  Ptarmica  plena  has  pretty  double  white  flowers.  Antcnnarias  are 
known  as  Everlasting,  and  one— the  Pearly 
Everlasting— is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Europe,  and  the  flowers  dried  for  winter 
bouquets.  Liatris,  of  which  there  are 
many  hardy  indigenous  species,  are  best 
known  in  cultivation  under  the  name  of 
Blazing  Star.  They  are  tall-growing 
plants,  with  rather  thick  and  woody  corms 
or  tubers  at  the  base  of  the  stems.  Arnica 
and  Inula  (Elecampane),  are  genera  yield- 
ing medicinal  properties  more  or  less  in 
repute.  Gaillardia  and  Gazania  are  showy 
greenhouse  plants,  also  employed  for  bed- 
ding out  in  summer.  These  plants  are 
raised  from  seeds,  or  by  divisions  of  the 
roots  and  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots. 
All  of  the  hardy  genera  are  most  readily 
propagated  by  division.  Chrysanthemum 
has  of  late  years  become  one  of  the  most 
popular  genera  in  the  family,  especially 
the  Chinese  species  ((?.  Indicum).  Propa- 
gation may  be  effected  by  seeds,  cuttings, 
divisions  or  suckers.  Varieties  can  only 
by  perpetuated  by  the  last  three  modes. 
Cuttings  of  the  young  shoots  strike  root 
very  readily  under  glass  and  with  mod- 
erate heat,  and  the  plants  requite  only 
good,  rich  soil,  plenty  of  moisture,  and 
plenty  of  room  in  which  to  expand.  There  are  now  more  than  a  thou- 
sand named  varieties  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Chrysanthemums  in  cul- 
tivation, and  scores  of  new  ones  are  brought  forward  every  season.  The 
Dahlia  is  another  very  popular  genus  of  the  Composite  Family  of  plants. 
There  are  but  few  distinct  species,  but  an  immense  number  of  cultivated 
varieties.  Flowers  usually  very  large  and  showy,  and  of  many  shades 
of  color ;  roots  tuberous,  several  tubers  usually  attached  to  the  base  of 
the  stem,  and  the  eyes  or  buds  always  at  the  apex  of  each  tuber,  or  on 
the  stem.  The  most  usual  mode  of  propagation  is  by  dividing  the  clump 


Fig.  106. 

GRAFTING   THE  DAHLIA. 


318  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS.  : 

of  tubers,  care  being  taken  to  preserve  at  least  one  eye  or  bud  on  each> 
This  dividing  is  done  in  spring,  the  tubers  having  been  kept  in  a  warm, 
dry  place  over  winter.  To  multiply  scarce  varieties,  the  tubers  may  be 
potted,  and  as  the  sprouts  push  they  may  be  slipped  off  and  treated  as 
cuttings,  planting  in  sand  or  light  soil,  where  they  will  receive  a  little 
bottom  heat.  When  roots  have  formed  in  the  cuttings  they  should  be 
placed  singly  in  small  pots.  Cuttings  made  of  either  the  side  or  termi- 
nal shoots,  taken  from  large  plants,  strike  root  very  readily  under  glass. 
Grafting  is  sometimes  practised,  a  small  piece  of  a  tuber  answering  for 
a  stock,  the  cion  being  inserted  as  shown  in  figure  106,  and  held  in  place 
with  a  ligature  of  bass  or  fine  twine.  The  grafted  tuber  is  then  planted 
in  a  frame  and  given  the  same  care  and  attention  as  usually  bestowed 
upon  cuttings. 

Convolvulacece  (Morning  Glory  or  Convolvulus  Family). — A  family 
of  half  a  dozen  or  more  genera,  but  nearly  seven  hundred  species.  The 
common  Morning  Glory  (Ipomcea),  and  Quamadit  (Cypress  Vine),  are 
well-known  annual  climbers  of  this  family.  A  few  genera,  such  as  the 
Cuscuta  (Dodder),  and  Calystegla  (Bindweed),  are  weeds  which  have 
become  intolerable  nuisances  in  many  localities.  The  Sweet  Potatd 
(Ipomcea  batatas),  is  the  most  valuable  member  of  the  family,  although 
there  are  many  other  species  of  the  same  genus  that  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated for  ornamental  purposes.  The  perennial,  tuberous-rooted  species 
are  propagated  from  sprouts,  which  are  forced  out  "in  great  abundance 
by  placing  the  tubers  in  a  hot-bed,  or  where  they  will  receive  gentle 
bottom  heat.  The  sprouts,  when  a  few  inches  long,  are  pulled  off  and 
planted  out  separately.  This  is  the  usual  mode  of  propagating  the 
varieties  of  the  Sweet  Potatoes,  but  this  and  other  perennial  species  may 
be  multiplied  by  cuttings  of  the  vines,  taken  off  at  almost  any  time  dur- 
ing the  summer. 

Crassulacece  (Orpine  Family).— A  large  family  composed  princi- 
pally of  succulent  herbs.  There  is  about  a  dozen  genera  and  several 
hundred  species.  The  best  known  are  Bryophyllum,  Crassula,  Sedum, 
Rochca  and  Scmpcrvivum.  The  common  House  Leek  (Sempervivum  tecto- 
runi)  is  a  familial*  and  good  representative  of  the  family,  and  while  the 
other  genera  may  not  be  as  hardy  or  as  difficult  to  kill  out,  still  they 
may  be  readily  propagated  by  divisions,  or  cuttings  of  leaves  and  stems. 

Cructferece  (Mustard  Family). — A  large  order  containing  many 
kinds  of  useful  and  edible,  as  well  as  ornamental  plants.  There  are  170 
genera  and  nearly  1,300  species.  Many  of  our  common  garden  veg- 
etables, such  as  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Cress,  Horseradish,  Mustard  and 
Turnip,  belong  to  this  family,  but  the  propagation  of  these  plants  is  to® 
familiar  to  all  cultivators  to  be  repeated  here.  Among  the  ornamental 
genera,  the  following  are  worthy  of  some  attention :  Arcibis  (Rock 
Cress),  Alyssum  (Sweet  Alyssum),  Ibcris  (Candytuft),  Chieranthus  (Wall- 
flower), Ilesperis  (Garden  Rocket),  and  Matthiola  (Stock  or  Gilliflower). 
These,  however,  are  all  easily  propagated  by  seeds,  divisions,  or  from 


HERBS,    TUBERS   AND    BULBS.  319 

cuttings  of  the  young  shoots,  planted  in  an  ordinary  greenhouse,  or 
under  a  frame  during  the  summer  months. 

Curcubitacece  (Gourd  or  Cucumber  Family).— A  family  of  succu- 
lent, climbing  or  trailing  plants,  furnished  with  solitary  lateral  tendrils. 
They  are  mostly  annuals,  and  many  of  the  genera  yield  large  and 
delicious  fruit,  such  as  the  Melons  ;  others  are  cultivated  for  ornament, 
such  as  the  small  Gourds  and  the  Bryonias ;  the  litter  are  greenhouse 
perennials  with  tuberous  roots.  Propagated  by  seed,  layers,  and  the 
tuberous  rooted  species  by  division  of  the  tubers  when  in  a  dormant 
state.  ; 

Cycadacece  (Cycas  Family).— A  family  of  small,  Palm-like  plants^ 
closely  related  to  the  conifers,  the  male  flowers  being  in  cones,  and  the 
female  consisting  only  of  ovules  on  the  edges  of  what  may  be  termed 
abnormal  leaves.  There  are  nine  genera,  all  tropical  or  sub-tropical. 
The  Sago  Palm  (Cycas  revoluta)  and  the  Coontie  (Zamia  intcgrifolia),  of 
Florida,  are  familiar  representatives  of  this  family.  Propagated  by  seed, 
but  mostly  by  suckers  or  sprouts  that  spring  up  about  the  stems  of  old 
plants. 

Cyperacece  (Sedge  Family).— A  large  family  of  low,  grass-like; 
mostly  perennial  plants,  with  minute  flowers  in  spikes  or  heads.  Only 
a  few  of  the  genera  are  of  horticultural  value,  and  among  these  Carex, 
Cyperus,  Papyrus  and  Seisms  are  the  best  known.  The  Cyperm  escu- 
lentus  is  the  well-known  Chuf a,  the  small  tubers  of  which  are  quite  sweet 
and  edible,  sometimes  cultivated  for  feeding  swine  and  sheep.  The 
Variegated  Rush  ( Cyperus  allernifolius  variegatus)  is  a  handsome  peren- 
nial greenhouse  plant.  Papyrus  anliquorum  is  supposed  to  be  the  Bul- 
rush of  the  Nile,  from  which  paper  was  first  made.  It  is  in  common 
cultivation  in  greenhouses.  All  the  genera  require  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  Propagated  by  division  of  the  roots  or  tubers,  and  by  seeds. 

Dioscoreacefg  (Yam  Family). — A  family  of  twining  herbs  and 
shrubs,  mostly  natives  of  tropical  climates,  and  the  larger  proportion 
producing  tubers,  used  as  food  the  same  as  the  common  potato.  Dioscorca 
saliva,  is  the  common  yam  of  the  West  Indies,  and  D.  batatas  is  the 
Chinese  yam  or  potato,  introduced  into  this  country  about  thirty  years 
ago,  and  highly  extolled  as  a  tuber  likely  to  supersede  the  common 
potato  ;  but  while  the  tubers  are  of  excellent  quality,  they  penetrate  the 
earth  so  deeply  that  it  costs  more  to  dig  them  than  they  are  worth. 
This  species  is  now  cultivated  as  a  hardy  climbing  ornamental  vine, 
its  thick  leaves  making  it  an  excellent  climber,  while  its  dull-looking 
flowers  are  so  fragrant  that  it  is  offered  by  some  as  the  "  Cinnamon 
vine."  All  readily  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots  or  tubers,  and  by 
cuttings  of  the  stems.  Some  of  the  species  produce  small  aerial  tubers 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  these  are  utilized  in  their  propagation. 

Droseracece  (Sundew  Family). — A  small  family  of  low  annual  and 
perennial  bog-herbs,  with  flowers  consisting  of  from  four  to  eight 
persistent  sepals,  and  a  similar  number  of  petals.  Leaves  variable, 


320  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

often  bristly  fringed.  There  are  six  genera,  and  about  a  hundred 
species  in  this  family.  The  best  known  genera  are  Dioncea,  Drosera  and 
Drosophyllum.  The  Dioncea  muscipula  is  a  native  of  the  low  peat  bogs 
near  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  and  has  long  been  known  under  the  common 
name  of  "Venus's  Fly-trap,"  from  the  way  the  leaves  close  up  and 
catch  flies  and  insects  which  may  alight  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
expanded  leaves.  Only  one  species  of  this  genera  is  known,  but  of  the 
Drosera  there  are  about  ten  known,  one  half  native  of  our  Southern 
States,  and  the  other  of  Australia.  They  possess  the  same  irritability 
as  the  Dioncea,  catching  small  insects.  The  Drosophyllum  lusitanicum 
is  a  greenhouse  shrub,  native  of  Southern  Europe  and  Africa,  but  its 
leaves  and  hairs  are  not  sensitive  to  the  touch.  It  is  propagated  by 
cuttings,  but  the  species  of  the  two  first  named  genera  may  be  propa- 
gated by  seed  or  by  divisions.  They  thrive  best  in  light,  peaty  soils,  or  in 
beds  composed  principally  of  Sphagnum  moss  from  the  swamps. 

Filices  (Fern  Family). — An  immense  order,  of  about  seventy-five 
genera,  and  nearly,  or  quite,  2,500  species.  They  are  mostly  perennial 
herbs,  with  creeping  or  ascending  root-stocks,  a  few  climbing,  others 
shrubby  or  arborescent.  Ferns  are  most  abundant  in  warm,  moist 
climates,  but  there  are  many  low  growing  species,  extending  far  into 
the  colder  regions  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  leaves,  or 
fronds  as  they  are  usually  termed,  are  tufted  or  alternate  on  the  root- 
stocks  ;  some  arc  simple,  but  the  larger  proportion  are  compound  and 
variously  divided  ;  and  the  segments,  pinnos  and  pinnules  are  widely 
variable  in  numbers,  size  and  forms.  Ferns  are  called  flowerless  plants, 
because  the  organs  of  fructification  are  microscopic,  and  the  spores, 
which  answer  the  same  purpose  as  seeds  in  the  higher  order  of  plants, 
are  usually  collected  in  masses,  or  a  sorus,  on  the  under  side  of  the 
fronds,  as  in  the  common  wild  Adder's  Tongue  ferns  (Opliioglossums  and 
Botrychiums),  The  propagation  of  ferns  is  usually  affected  by  varying 
the  mode  in  accord  with  the  different  habits  of  the  numerous  sub- 
families and  genera.  The  most  common  one  is  by  divisions  of  the 
creeping  rhizomes,  or  by  the  little  bulbils  forming  naturally  on  the 
fronds  of  some  of  the  genera,  such  as  in  the  Aspleniums.  The  best 
time  to  divide  the  rhizomes,  or  those  kinds  growing  in  small  slender 
clumps  with  thread-like  roots,  is  just  before  growth  commences,  and 
while  the  plants  are  in  a  semi-dormant  state.  Taken  as  a  family,  the 
ferns  need  a  great  amount  of  water  both  over-head  and  at  their  roots, 
but  what  is  usually  called  stagnant  moisture  at  the  roots  is  highly 
injurious,  consequently  good  free  drainage  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Propagation  by  spores  is  always  an  interesting  mode,  even  when  not 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  stock  of  plants,  because  of  the 
chances  afforded  of  producing  new  varieties  ;  and  when  a  number  of 
different  species  are  grown  together  in  the  same  house,  variations  from 
normal  types  may  be  more  pronounced  than  where  only  a  few  or  a  single 
species  is  cultivated.  In  preparing  seed  pans,  or  boxes,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  spores,  cover  the  bottom  with  broken  pots  or  pieces  of  brick, 


HERBS,    TUBEKS   AXD  BULBS, 


321 


and  over  these  place  old,  half-decomposed  sod,  then  fill  up  with  a 
mixture  of  fine  leaf-mold  and  silver  sand.  Smooth  the  surface,  and 
make  it  as  level  as  possible,  then  scatter 
the  spores  and  leave  them  without  any  cov- 
ering of  soil  or  other  material.  Set  a  bell 
glass  over  the  seed  pan,  or,  if  deep  enough, 
a  pane  of  window  glass  laid  flat  on  the  top 
of  the  pan  or  box  will  answer  equally  as 
well.  Water  must  be  applied  by  placing 
the  bottom  of  the  seed  pan  in  a  shallow 
saucer  or  other  vessel,  leaving  it  in  this 
position  until  the  water  rises  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil  within  ;  then  remove  it.  Water- 
ing overhead  is  not  practicable  until  the 
plants  appear,  except  it  be  applied  with  an 
atomizer.  The  frond  from  which  the  spores 
are  to  be  obtained  should  be  cut  when  the 
son  begin  to  turn  brown,  and  by  passing 
the  finger  over  them  a  few  can  be  easily 

Fig.  107.-FESN  SEEDLING.       rubbed%ff.       Lay    away    the    f^    in  the 

shade  for  two  or  three  days,  then  scatter  the  spores  in  the  seed  pan  by 

holding  the  frond  over  it,  and  snapping  the  back  with  thumb  and  finger. 

When  the  young  plants  appear,  and  are  large  enough  to  be  removed 

safely,  they  should  be  pricked  off 

in  small  clumps,  and  lifted  out  on 

the  point  of  a  knife.    When  of  the 

size  shown  in  figure  107  they  may 

be  potted  off  separately,  using  small 

thumb  pots  for  the  purpose.    It  is 

well  to  keep  them  in  the  house, 

where  they  will  be  shaded  and  in 

a  close  atmosphere,  until  they  are 

well  established. 


Fumariacece  (Fumitory  Fam- 
ily).— A  small  order  of  herbaceous 
plants,  closely  related  to  the  Poppy 
Family  (Papavcracece),  and  by  some 
botanists  considered  as  only  a  tribe 
of  the  latter.  The  most  interesting 
genus  in  the  family  is  Dicentra.  TLis 
genus  contains  several  hardy  peren- 
nial species  of  ornamental  plants, 
a  few  indigenous  to  the  United 
States,  such  as  D.  cucullaria  (Dutchman's  Breeches)  and  D.  Canadensis 
(Squirrel-corn) ;  but  the  most  showy  and  valuable  species  is  the  D. 
spectabilis  (Bleeding  Heart),  brought  from  Northern  China.  This  is 
truly  one  of  the  most  graceful  as  well  as  beautiful  hardy  herbaceous 


Fig.  108. — FLOWERS  OF  DICENTKA 
SPECTABILIS. 


322  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

plants  in  cultivation,  and  a  universal  favorite.  It  is  readily  propagated 
by  division  of  the  large  clumps  of  fleshy  roots,  cr  by  cuttings  of  the 
succulent  stems,  planted  either  in  frames,  or  in  a  shady  place  in  the 
open  ground.  Cuttings  of  the  blooming  stems,  taken  just  as  the 
flowers  begin  to  drop  off,  root  quite  readily  in  the  open  air,  if  water  is 
applied  freely  during  dry  weather.  Of  the  other  genera  very  few  are 
cultivated,  although  some  of  the  perennial  Corydalis  are  occasionally 
ceen  in  botanical  collections  and  private  gardens.  All  readily  propa- 
gated by  seed  and  cuttings  of  the  succulent  stems. 

Gentianacece  (Gentian  Family).— Mostly  smooth  annual,  biennial 
or  perennial  herbs,  a  colorless  bitter  juice  being  a  characteristic  of  the 
entire  order.  Of  the  forty-nine  genera  of  this  family,  a  very  small 
number  are  represented  in  gardens  and  greenhouses.  The  most  popular 
of  all  are  the  true  Gentians  (Gentiana),  and  some  of  the  very  best  of 
these  resist  all  attempts  to  domesticate  them.  The  best  mode  of  propa- 
gation is  by  seed,  and  this  had  better  be  scattered  in  what  may  be 
termed  a  "  wild  garden,"  and  the  plants  left  undisturbed.  The  peren- 
nial species,  however,  may  be  raised  in  seed  pans  or  frames,  and  the 
plants  transplanted  when  large  enough  for  handling ;  but  the  slow- 
growth  of  seedling  Gentians  will  try  the  patience  of  the  most  persever- 
ing of  propagators. 

Geraniacece  (Geranium  Family). — A  large  order  of  about  twenty 
genera  and  over  seven  hundred  species,  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  temperate  and  semi-tropical  regions  of  the  whole  world.  The  most 
familiar  genera  are  the  Geranium,  Pelargonium,  Tropocolum  and  Oxalis. 
The  latter,  however,  belong  to  a  distinct  tribe — Oxalidece — of  the  order 
Geraniacece.  The  true  Geraniums  are  rather  sparingly  represented 
among  cultivated  plants ;  the  most  popular  species  and  varieties  that 
arc  commonly  called  geraniums  are  really  Pelargoniums,  such  as  tho 
Zonale,  Rose-scented,  Nutmeg,  Oak-leaved,  Ivy-leaved,  Scarlets  and 
Tricolors  ;  but  as  the  species  have  become  so  intermingled  by  hybrid- 
izing and  crossing  under  cultivation,  it  is  now  very  difficult  to  determino 
the  true  parents  of  any  of  the  older  varieties.  The  Pelargoniums  aro 
all  perennials,  and  more  or  less  shrubby.  New  varieties  are  raised  from 
seed,  which  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  or  preserved  for  several 
months  and  then  sown  in  rather  light  soil  and  covered  with  fine  earth 
sifted  over  them  to  the  depth  of  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 
The  seeds  usually  germinate  readily  in  a  temperature  of  60  to  70 
degrees,  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  produced  a  second  or  third 
pair  of  leaves  they  should  be  removed  from  the  seed  pans  and  potted 
separately.  With  few  exceptions,  all  the  varieties  in  cultivation  are 
readily  propagated  by  cuttings,  made  of  the  young  succulent  shoots, 
planted  in  sand  in  an  ordinary  cool  greenhouse  ;  a  very  high  tem- 
perature is  not  desirable  for  cuttings  of  Pelargoniums.  One  or  two 
good  leaves  should  be  left  on  the  cutting  ;  but  with  very  scarce  and 
rare  varieties  single-eye  cuttings  may  be  used,  making  these  of  rather 
firm  and  mature  shoots.  Root  cuttings  may  also  be  utilized  in  multi« 


HERBS,  TUBERS  AND  BULBS.          323 

plying  choice  varieties,  taking  the  roots  of  large  and  rather  mature 
plants  for  this  purpose.  Cuttings  of  either  the  shoots  or  roots  may  be 
made  at  any  or  all  seasons,  if  given  the  protection  of  a  house  or  of  an 
ordinary  garden  frame  covered  with  glazed  sash.  Of  the  genus  Oxalis, 
there  are  are  a  large  number  of  species,  some  natives  of  cold  climates 
and,  of  course,  quite  hardy,  as  with  our  common  Wood  Sorrel  ( 0.  Acc~ 
tosella) ;  others  are  tender  and  cultivated  in  greenhouses.  There  are 
several  bulbous  or  tuberous-rooted  species  ;  and  at  least  two,  found  in 
South  America,  are  cultivated  for  their  edible  tubers.  All  are  readily 
propagated  by  seed,  divisions  of  the  roots  and  tubers. 

Gesneriacece  (Gesneria  Family). — A  large  family  of  tropical 
berbs  and  shrubs,  rarely  trees ;  often  growing  from  scaly  tubers. 
Flowers  with  sowewhat  irregular  corollas  ;  the  corolla  tube  often 
elongated  or  tube-shaped.  Mostly  very  showy  conservatory  plants,  re- 
quiring a  high  temperature  and  a  moist  atmosphere  during  their  season 
of  most  rapid  growth.  The  most  familiar  genera  are  :  AcJiimenes, 
Gesneria  and  Gloxinia.  The  seeds  of  all  these  genera  are  very  minute, 
and  should  be  sown  on  the  surface  of  very  light  soil,  then  covered  only 
with  a  bell  glass  and  water  applied  with  an  atomizer,  or  through  a  fine 
rose  on  a  watering  pot  or  syringe.  The  seed  requires  a  high  tempera- 
ture and  a  constant  supply  of  moisture  ;  and  the  young  plants  need  to 
be  handled  with  great  care  in  transplanting,  and  kept  shaded  and  moist 
until  well  established.  Varieties  of  Achimencs  may  be  readily  propa- 
gated by  means  of  the  small  corm  produced  at  the  base  of  their  stems, 
or  by  cuttings  of  any  portion  of  their  stems,  planted  in  light  soil  or  in 
sand,  then  giving  plenty  of  moisture  overhead,  and  a  high  temperature. 
The  larger  number  of  the  species  of  Gesneria  in  cultivation  are  tuberous- 
rooted  and  herbaceous,  and  they  are  propagated  by  dividing  the  tubers 
and  by  cuttings  of  the  stems,  taken  when  somewhat  mature  or  hard- 
ened off  after  blooming.  Gloxinias  are  low — almost,  or  quite  stemless — 
herbs,  with  very  large  soft  leaves  and  showy  flowers  of  many  colors. 
Seedlings  bloom  the  first  year,  and  varieties  are  readily  multiplied  by 
cuttings  of  the  leaves,  or  from  the  young  sprouts  as  they  push  from 
the  old  tubers'  in  spring. 

Graminete  (Grass  Family). — An  immense  order,  and  a  large  number 
of  the  genera  of  the  greatest  importance  to  man,  not  only  yielding  the 
bread  materials  of  the  world,  but  supplying  the  most  valuable  of  our 
domesticated  animals  with  food.  The  cerealia,  Wheat,  Rye,  Oats,  Rice, 
Sorghum  and  Indian  Corn,  are  annual  grasses,  while  the  Tropical  Sugar 
Cane,  the  giant  Bamboo  of  Asia,  and  many  of  the  larger  ornamental 
species  are  perennials.  The  cultivation  and  propagation  of  all  the  more 
useful  genera  are  so  well  known  that  they  may  be  omitted  here.  It  may 
not,  however,  be  generally  known  among  cultivators  that  the  Arundo, 
Banibusa,  Dendrocalamtis,  and  other  closely  allied  genera,  may  be  almost 
or  quite  as  readily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  stems  as  the  Saccharum. 
officinarum,  or  Tropical  Sugar  Cane.  This  mode  is  preferable  to  the 


324 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS, 


usual  one  of  dividing  the  roots  for  perpetuating  grasses  with  variegated 
foliage. 

Irtdacece  (Iris  Family).— A  moderately  large  order  of  monocotyle- 
donous  perennial  herbs,  the  stems  and  leaves  rising  from  somewhat 
fleshy  root  stocks,  bulbs  or  tubers.  Flowers  showy,  and  of  many  forms 
and  colors,  in  terminal  spikes,  corymbs,  or  loose  panicles.  This  family 
is  extensively  represented  in  gardens  by  such  genera  as  Crocus,  Gladio- 
lus, Iris,  Ixia,  PardantJius  and  Tiyridia.  All  are  readily  propagated  by 
seeds,  but  this  mode  is  rarely  practised  except  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing new  varieties.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  in  boxes  or  small  pots, 
using  light,  friable  soil ;  the  plants  are  then  placed  in  frames  or  kept  in 
a  greenhouse  until  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  be  safely  set  out  in 

the  open  ground.  Tender  species 
must,  of  course,  be  protected  in  win- 
ter, either  by  lifting  the  plants  and 
storing  them  in  a  cellar,  in  pits,  or 
in  some  similar  place  where  they 
will  not  be  frozen.  The  different 
species  of  Crocus  usually  multiply 
very  rapidly  by  the  natural  increase 
of  the  bulbs  or  conns.  The  Gladio- 
luses multiply  less  rapidly,  as  a  new 
bulb  is  only  formed  at  the  base  of 
each  stem,  or  set  of  leaves  arising 
from  the  buds  or  eyes  on  the  old  or 
parent  bulb,  and  while  there  may  be 
many  of  these  buds  on  its  surface,  the 
larger  proportion  remain  dormant, 
two  or  three  of  the  strongest  push- 
ing into  growth.  In  addition  to  the 
buds  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  Gla- 
diolus bulb,  there  are  usually  pro- 
duced a  large  number  of  bulbils  at- 
tached to  the  base  of  the  old  bulb,  as 

shown  in  figure  109.  These  small  bulbs  or  "  spawn,"  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  are  extensively  employed  in  propagating  choice  varieties. 
They  should  be  carefully  removed  from  the  old  bulbs  when  the  latter 
are  taken  up  in  the  fall,  and  stored  in  pure  sand,  and  kept  where  they 
will  not  become  so  dry  as  to  shrivel,  nor  so  moist  as  to  cause  them  to 
decay.  In  spring  they  should  be  sown  in  shallow  trenches,  and  in  a  very 
light  but  rich  soil.  With  good  care  they  will  produce  bulbs  from  a  half 
inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter  the  first  season.  But  there  are  some  of  the 
cultivated  varieties  which  do  not  produce  the  small  bulbils  in  any  con- 
siderable number,  and  in  some  seasons  none  at  all ;  consequently,  the 
propagator  must  devise  some  other  mode  for  rapidly  increasing  his  stock. 
There  are  several  ways  of  forcing  the  latent  buds  of  the  old  bulbs, 
and  each  new  sprout  will  eventually  produce  a  new  bulb  at  its  base. 


Fig.  109.— GLADIOLUS  BULB 
WITH  BULBILS  ATTACHED. 


HERBS,  TUBERS  AKD  BULBS. 


325 


The  old  bulbs  may  be  partly  divided  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  cutting 
around  and  at  some  distance  from  each  eye,  found  on  the  top  and  sides 
of  the  bulbs ;  this  will  allow  the  bulb  to  expand  or  spread  apart  as 
growth  begins  in  spring,  each  bud  producing  a  shoot  or  plant.  This 
cutting  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  bulb  should  be  done  several  weeks 
before  the  bulbs  are  planted  out,  either  in  frames  or  the  open  ground. 
Separating  the  bulbs  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  eyes  is  another 


Fig.  110. — GLADIOLUS  BULB  WITH  ROOTS  CHANGED  TO  LEAVES. 

mode,  but  there  is  danger  of  the  smaller  pieces  rotting  if  planted  out  in 
cold  soil,  and  the  better  way  is  to  plant  them  in  shallow  boxes  of  light 
soil  or  sand,  and  keep  them  in  a  greenhouse  until  late  in  spring,  and 
then  transfer  to  the  garden.  The  roots  of  the  Gladiolus  may  also  be 
made  to  change  into  sprouts,  as  I  had  occasion  to  show  in  the  "  Ameri- 
can Agriculturist"  for  June,  1869.  A  number  of  Gladiolus  bulbs  hav- 
ing been  left  under  the  stage  of  a  greenhouse  during  the  winter,  several 
of  these  were  turned  upside  down,  so  that  the  eyes  or  buds  were  ex- 


326 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Fig.  111. 

BULB  OF  TIGKIDIA. 


eluded  from  the  light,  and  probably  had  less  heat  than  the  bottom  of 
the  bulb.  The  results  were  that  the  roots,  or  the  appendages  which 
would  have  been  roots  under  natural  condi- 
tions, pushed  upward  in  the  form  of  leaves,  as 
shown  in  figure  110.  This  is  but  another  in- 
stance of  the  reorganization  of  cellular  matter 
referred  to  in  a  previous  chapter.  By  dividing 
large,  mature  bulbs  crossways,  and  inverting 
the  lower  section,  and  planting  it  in  sand,  with 
root  surface  exposed  to  the  light,  sprouts  may 
be  obtained  in  large  numbers,  each  producing  a 
email  bulb  at  its  base.  The  upper  half  of  the 
bulb  may  be  lightly  scarified  on  the  surface, 
and  forced  in  the  same  way  as  though  it  had 
not  been  divided.  Irises,  Ixias  and  Pardanthuses 
are  readily  propagated  by  offsets,  which  are 
produced  very  freely.  The  Tiyridias  have  rather 
small,  compact  bulbs,  many  in  a  cluster,  or 
clump,  as  shown  in  figure  111.  They  must  be 
kept  in  a  warm,  dry  place  during  the  winter 
months,  and  when  taken  up  in  the  fall  the  leaves  and  stems  should  be 
left  entire,  and  not  cut  off  until  towards  spring,  or  after  the  bulbs  have 
become  thoroughly  dried. 

Lablatce  (Mint  Family).— A  very  large  order  mostly  of  herbs,  usu- 
ally with  scented  foliage.  Many  of  the  genera  furnish  medicinal  and 
economical  plants,  such  as  Sweet  Basil,  Horehound,  Lavender,  Mint, 
Patchouly,  Rosemaiy,  Sage  and  Thyme.  These  are  simple  garden  herbs, 
all  readily  propagated  by  seed,  divisions  of  the  roots,  or  cuttings  of  the 
young  shoots  planted  under  glass.  The  ornamental  species  of  Salvia 
are  mostly  natives  of  warm  climates,  requiring  the  temperature  of  a 
greenhouse  in  winter ;  but  they  are  readily  propagated  by  seed,  and  the 
varieties  are  usually  perpetuated  by  young  plants  struck  from  cuttings 
taken  from  oli  stock  plants  kept  over  for  this  purpose.  The  many 
varieties  of  Coleus  Blumei,  of  Java,  now  so  common  in  cultivation,  are 
also  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots,  and  even  a  single  leaf 
may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  roots  being  freely  produced  if  the  cut- 
tings are  kept  moist,  and  in  a  temperature  ranging  from  sixty  to  eighty 
degrees.  There  is  a  tuberous-rooted  species  of  the  Coleus  ( C.  tubcrosus) 
in  Madagascar,  and  although  it  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies by  the  natives,  as  an  article  of  food,  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
reached  this  country.  The  tubers  are  preserved  in  a  dry,  warm  place 
during  winter  and  planted  out  in  spring. 

Leguminosece  (Pulse  Family). — An  extensively  and  widely  distrib- 
uted order  of  trees,  shrubs,  annual  and  perennial  herbs.  As  the  most 
important  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  this  family  have  been  referred  to  in 
preceding  chapters,  I  will  notice  here  only  a  few  genera  containing 
familiar  perennial  herbaceous  plants.  Among  these  are  Astragalus, 


HEEBS,    TUBERS   A3D   BULBS.  327 

Dalea,  Desmodium,  Dolichos,  Clianthus,  Clitona,  Lcspedeza,  Mimosa, 
and  Phaseolus.  Of  each  of  these  genera  there  are  a  few  species  in  general 
cultivation,  either  as  conservatory  or  hardy  border  plants,  while  some 
of  ths  genera,  such  as  Astragalus  and  Desmodium,  are  mostly  pestiferous 
or  uninteresting  weeds.  Dolichos  lignosus  is  a  showy  greenhouse 
climber  from  India,  readily  propagated  by  seed,  or  cuttings  of  its 
perennial  roots.  Clianthus  Dampieri,  or  Glory  Pea,  is  a  remarkable 
ehowy  plant  from  Australia,  and  thrives  only  in  a  high  temperature. 
Seeds  should  be  sown  singly  in  small  pots,  and  the  plants  carefully 
shifted  into  larger  ones  as  they  increase  in  growth,  great  care  being 
required  in  the  operation  to  prevent  disturbing,  or  allowing  the  soil  to 
fall  away  from  the  roots.  Plants  set  out  in  the  garden  late  in  spring 
will  usually  bloom  the  same  season.  The  Clitorias  are  tropical  climbing 
plants,  with  large  and  showy  flowers,  and  with  trifoliate  and  pinnate 
leaves.  Propagated  by  seed,  or  from  cuttings  of  the  side'shoots  taken 
oil  with  a  hip,  and  planted  in  close  frames  in  the  house.  Lespedeza  has 
given  us  an  excellent  forage  plant  for  the  South  in  the  Japan  clover 
(L.  striata),  and  a  large  late,  flowering  hardy  herbaceous  plant,  the  L. 
bicolor,  but  usually  offered  by  florists  under  the  name  of  Desmodium 
pendulijlorum.  The  Japan  clover  spreads  rapidly  by  seed,  and  the 
latter  is  propagated  by  dividing  the  rather  hard  woody  stems  and  roots. 
Mimosa  is  the  well-known  sensitive  plant,  and  is  readily  propagated  by 
seed.  Phaseolus  contains  the  annual  and  perennial  beans ;  the  latter 
may  be  increased  by  either  seeds  or  cuttings. 

Lillacece  (Lily  Family). — An  immense  order  of  about  180  genera  and 
fully  2,500  species.  There  are  also  in  cultivation  innumerable  varieties 
of  nearly  all  of  the  popular  species  in  the  different  genera.  The  space 
at  my  command  will  only  admit  of  a  brief  notice  of  a  very  few  of  the 
most  familiar  genera  cultivated  for  ornamental  purposes.  Although  in 
intrinsic  value  such  economic  plants  as  the  Asparagus,  Onion,  Squill, 
and  New  Zealand  Flax  (Phormium  tenax),  shoulJ  take  precedence  of 
the  purely  ornamental,  but  as  luxuries  are  usually  more  highly  prized 
than  the  necessaries  of  life  among  civilized  nations,  so  the  ornamental 
must  take  precedence  here  of  the  purely  useful  among  the  lilies.  Of  the 
latter  the  Agapanthus,  Fritillarla,  Ilyacinthus,  Lilium,  and  Tulipa,  arc  the 
most  extensively  cultivated  and  highly  prized.  The  species  of  all  these 
genera  aro  readily  propagated  by  seed,  division,  offsets,  bulblets — which 
some  species  produce  in  the  nxils  of  the  leaves — and  from  scales  of  the 
old  or  mature  bulbs.  With  all  the  different  genera  and  species  having, 
scaly  bulbs,  such  as  the  L.  Spcciosum,  figure  4,  Chapter  XL,  and 
L.  Canadcnsc,  figure  112,  may  be  readily  utilized  in  their  pr-opagatiop. 
Imported  bulbs,  or  those  which  have  been  a  long  timo  out,  of  the 
ground,  or  until  they  have  become  much  shrivelled,  may  always  be  used 
with  advantage  in  this  mode  of  propagation.  If  such  bulbs  arc  planted 
entire  they  are  very  likely  to  decay,  but  if  the  scales  aro  separated  an4 
scattered  between  lasers  of  damp  moss,  in  large  pots  or  well  drained 
boxes,  and  then  placed  in  a  green-house  or  warm  cellar,  and  given 


328  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

water  as  often  as  necessary  to  prevent  drying,  they  will  usually  produce 
plump  little  bulbs,  in  two  or  three  months.  When  new  roots  push  out 
from  the  base  of  these  young  bulbs  they  may  be  potted  separately  or 
pricked  out  in  shallow  boxes  filled  with  light  rich  soil.  Hyacinths  are 
rarely  propagated  in  this  country  ;  nearly  all  the  bulbs  cultivated  here 
are  imported  from  Holland,  as  they  soon  degenerate  in  our  climate. 
The  bulbs  being  solid  and  not  made  up  of  scales,  as  in  the  true  lilies,  the 
propagation  of  varieties  is  effected  not  only  by  natural  division  but  by 
cutting  off  the  upper  half  of  the  bulb.  This  forces  the  base  or  lower  half 
to  produce  a  large  number  of  buds  or  bulblets.  Sometimes  the  lower 


Fig.  112.— BULB  OF  LILIUM  CANADENSE. 

% 

part  is  cut  across  the  bottom  in  various  directions  and  then  planted,  the 
exposed  parts  producing  small  bulbs  near  the  roots.  The  young  leaves 
are  sometimes  utilized  in  propagation,  for  if  cut  off  and  planted  in  light 
soil  they  will  produce  bulbs  on  the  lower  end.  Tulips  divide  naturally, 
and  increase  very  rapidly  without  artificial  aid. 

Loranthacece  (Mistletoe  Family).— An  interesting  order  of  para- 
sitic plants  living  upon  trees  and  shrubs,  and  mainly  drawing  their 
sustenance  from  the  plants  which  they  infest.  There  are  about  fifteen 
genera  and  three  hundred  species  known,  but  the  most  familiar  are  the 
European  Mistletoe  (Viscum  album)  and  the  common  American  Mis- 
tletoe Phoradendron  flavescens.  Their  propagation  is  rarely  attempted, 


HERBS,  TUBERS  AND  BULBS.         329 

but  if  the  seeds  are  inserted  just  under  the  bark  of  the  trees  the  differ- 
ent genera  and  species  are  known  to  live  upon,  they  will  usually  sprout 
and  grow.  The  European  Mistletoe  does  not  thrive  in  this  country  ;  at 
least  I  do  not  know  of  any  specimens  ;  but  the  American  species  grow 
abundantly  from  Ohio,  south  and  westward,  on  the  Button-wood, 
Poplar,  Ash,  Honey  Locust,  etc. 

Malvaceae  (Mallow  Family). — An  immense  and  important  order  of 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  The_e  are  about  fifty  genera  and  nearly,  or 
quite,  seven  hundred  species.  All  are  innocuous  mucilaginous  plants, 
with  fibrous  bark.  Gossypium,  in  economic  value,  is  probably  the  most 
important  genus,  yielding  the  different  species  and  varieties  of  cotton. 
The  ligneous  species  of  the  best  known  genera  have  been  referred  to  in 
preceding  chapters,  and  I  will  only  mention  here  a  few  of  the  hardy 
herbaceous  kinds,  such  as  Callirrhoe  (Prairie  Mallow),  Althea  or  Malva 
alcea  (Hollyhock),  and  the  Hibiscus,  or  Rose  Mallow,  of  various  species 
indigenous  to  the  United  States.  The  Prairie  Mallow  (Callirrhoe)  is 
readily  propagated  by  seed,  and  dividing  the  old  plants.  The  Holly- 
hock, although  naturally  a  biennial,  becomes  a  perennial  in  cultivation, 
through  propagating  it  by  division,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  young  sprouts 
as  they  push  from  the  large  fleshy  roots  in  spring.  The  Hose  Mallows 
are  not  often  cultivated,  but  are  worthy  of  more  attention  than  they 
have  received.  New  varie'.ies  arc  readily  raised  from  seed  sown  in  a 
half-shady  bed,  in  the  open  ground  in  spring,  and  these  propagated  by 
division  or  young  cuttings. 

Melastomacece  (Melastoma  Family). — An  order  of  trees,  shrubs  and 
herbs.  They  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropics,  and  representatives  of 
several  genera  are  grown  in  greenhouses.  Among  these  are  :  Cenlradenia, 
Cyanophyllum,  Bartoloma,  Melastoma  and  Plcroma.  The  most  familiar 
native  genus  is  the  Rhcxia,  half  a  dozen  species  of  which  are  found  in 
the  Atlantic  States,  but  rarely  seen  in  cultivation.  Propagated  by  seed 
and  cuttings  in  summer,  planted  in  a  close  frame  or  under  a  hand-glass. 

Mesembryanthemece  (Fig  Marigold  Family). — This  family  is  also 
known  as  the  Ficoidcce  in  some  of  our  botanical  works,  and  in  others  as 
Mcsenibryaccce.  There  are  nearly  three  hundred  species  in  cultivation, 
mostly  of  the  one  genus  Mescmbryantficmum.  They  are  best  known  in 
this  country  under  the  popular  name  of  "  Ice  Plants,"  They  are  chiefly 
low  trailing  plants,  with  thick  fleshy  leaves,  and  some  of  the  species 
have  large  and  showy  flowers.  They  thrive  best  in  a  rather  light  poor 
soil,  with  more  or  less  lime  rubbish  intermixed  with  it.  Their  propaga- 
tion is  exceedingly  simple,  as  almost  any  piece  of  stem  or  leaf  will 
take  root  if  laid  on  the  surface  of  sand  or  thrust  into  it,  and  then  ex- 
posed to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Nymphceacew  (Water  Lily  Family). — A  rather  small  order  of 
aquatic  perennial  herbs,  widely  distributed  over  the  globe  in  fresh- 
water ponds,  and  along  the  borders  of  rivers  and  smaller  streams. 
The  leaves  and  flowers  of  some  of  the  genera,  like  those  of  the  com- 


330  PKOPAGATION   OF  PLANTS. 

mon  Water  Lily  (Nymphcea  odorata),  float  on  the  surface  ;  others,  such  as 
Ndumbium  luteum  and  speciosum,  rise  several  feet  above  the  surface,  the 
seed  vessels  ripening  in  this  position.  In  others  the  seeds  or  fruit  ma- 
ture under  water.  They  thrive  best  in  rather  shallow  ponds  or  streams 
with  muddy  bottoms,  but  deep  enough  to  prevent  the  roots  freezing. 
Propagated  by  seed  and  division  of  the  roots,  or  by  tubers  formed  on 
the  subterranean  stems  and  root  stocks.  The  seeds  may  be  sprouted 
in  water  in  a  greenhouse,  and  then  transferred  to  the  pond,  a  small 
stone  or  pebble  being  attached  to  each  to  sink  and  hold  it  in  position  at 
the  bottom.  I  have  always  found  in  planting  the  tubers  and  cuttings 
that  it  was  better  to  sink  each  with  a  stone  than  to  trust  to  their  own 
weight  to  cany  them  down. 

Onagrariece,  or  Onagracece  (Evening  Primrose  Family).— A 
large  order,  mostly  inodorous,  of  annual  and  perennial  herbs ;  rarely 
shrubs  or  trees.  The  most  familiar  genera  in  cultivation  are  :  Clarkia 
(annual),  Fuchsias  (shrubs),  Jussicea,  Gaum,  (Enothera  and  Zauschnera. 
Tbe  shrubby  species  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  cuttings,  and  the  her- 
baceous perennials  by  seeds  and  careful  divisions  ;  or  by  cuttings  of  the 
young  shoots,  taken  oft  early  in  spring  and  planted  in  a  close  frame 
where  they  will  receive  but  a  moderate  heat.  The  (Enotheras  are  very 
showy  plants,  thriving  best  in  light  dry  soils. 

Orchidaceve  (Orchis  Family). — An  immense  order  of  monocotyle- 
donous  perennial  herbs.  Some  are  terrestrial,  with  tuberous  or  fascicled 
roots  ;  others  arc  epiphytes,  with  or  without  pseudo-bulbs,  living  on  the 
stems  of  palms,  and  various  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs  in  tropical  coun- 
tries. The  flowers  are  of  peculiar  and  varied  structure  ;  some  of  them 
appear  more  like  birds  and  butterflies  than  flowers.  Of  the  terrestrial 
genera  there  are  a  large  number  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  but 
they  are  rarely  cultivated,  with  the  exception  of  the  different  species  of 
Cypripcdium,  or  Lady's  Slipper.  These  thrive  best  in  moist  soil,  and 
the  plants  may  be  obtained  from  their  native  habitats,  transplanting 
when  the  flowers  begin  to  fade,  or  late  in  summer.  The  tender  exotic 
species  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses,  in  pots  filled  with  light  fibrous  or 
peaty  soil,  water  being  plentifully  supplied  when  the  plants  are  grow- 
ing most  rapidly,  and  the  temperature  varied  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  different  species.  There  are  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
four  genera  in  the  Orchis  Family,  and  about  five  thousand  species.  The 
genera  are  divided  into  five  tribes — Upidendrece,  Vandece,  JVcotticcc,  Oph- 
rydcce  and  Cypripcdicce.  The  genera  of  the  first  three  tribes  are  mostly 
epiphytal,  and  in  cultivation  are  grown  in  wire  baskets  filled  with 
sphagnum,  bits  of  cork,  light  wood,  bark,  and  similar  materials  ;  or  they 
are  attached  to  Eh3ets  of  cork,  sections  of  the  stems  of  old  palms, 
lumps  of  charcoal ;  in  fact,  almost  any  porous  substance  which  will 
not  decay  rapidly  will  answer.  Ordinary  flower  pots  will  answer  for 
many  of  the  species  if  filled  with  soft  brick  and  pieces  of  cork  or 
porous  wood.  A  pot  designed  expressly  for  Orchids  has  recently  been 


HEKBS,  TUBERS  AND  BULBS. 


331 


introduced  by  Mr.  Matthews  of  England,  and  its  construction  is  clearly 
shown  in  figure  113.  A  circular  earthenware  disc  is  made  to  replace  the 
mass  of  broken  crocks  usually  placed  below  the  other  materials  for 
drainage,  thereby  securing  aeration  and  avoiding  all  danger  of  over- 
watering.  Tribes  four  and  five  are  terrestrial  Orchids,  and  grown  in 
light  soils  as  recommended  for  the  common  Lady's  Slipper.  Few  of  the 
Orchids  are  of  any  economic  value  ;  the  Vanillas,  however,  are  an  excep- 
tion, the  fruit  yielding  a  valuable  balsamic  oil  with  well  known  deli- 
cious perfume.  The  propagation  of  the  Orchids,  as  a  family,  is  a  rather 
slow  process,  and  while  species  of  the  epiphytal  tribes  may  be  success- 
fully divided  when  at  rest,  yet  cultivators  depend  mainly  upon  fresh 


Fig.  113.— ORCHID  POT. 

collections  from  the  native  habitats  of  the  different  species  for  increas- 
ing their  stock  of  plants.  New  varieties  and  hybrids  are  raised  from 
seed,  but  it  requires  skill,  patience,  and  structures  especially  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  these  plants,  to  enable  one  to  succeed  in  such  operations. 

Papaveracece  (Poppy  Family). — A  small  order  of  about  seventeen 
genera,  mostly  herbs  with  milky  or  colored  juice.  The  only  shrub 
belonging  to  this  family  is  Dendromccon  rigidu-n  of  California.  There 
are  several  genera  containing  some  showy  annuals  that  have  long  been 
familiar  in  gardens,  like  Eschscholtzia,  Argcmone,  and  the  Opium  Poppy 
(P.  somnifcrum).  But  the  perennial  Poppies  (P.  orientalis)  are  not  so 
well  known,  but  they  are  well  worthy  of  cultivation.  They  are  easily 
raised  from  seed,  but  rather  difficult  to  transplant,  owing  to  their  very 
long  and  deeply  penetrating  roots.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  as  soon 
as  ripe,  and  where  the  plants  may  be  left  undisturbed. 


332  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

Plumbagtnacece  (Leadwort  Family).— These  are  mostly  low-grow- 
ing marine  herbs,  somewhat  remarkable  for  their  regular  flowers  ;  all  the 
different  parts  or  organs  in  fives— five  lobes  to  the  calyx,  five  petals  to 
flowers,  and  the  same  number  of  stamens  and  pistils.  The  most  familiar 
genera  in  gardens  are  Armeria  (Sea  Pink  and  Thrift),  Statice  (Sea  Laven- 
der) and  Plumbago  (Leadwort).  They  are  plants  requiring  only  moder- 
ate care  and  are  easily  propagated  by  seed,  or  by  dividing  the  clumps  or 
roots. 

Portulacacece  (Purslane  Family).— Succulent  annual  and  perennial 
herbs.  The  common  garden  Pusley  or  Purslane  (P.  oleracea),  and  the 
Great-flowered  Portulaca  (P.  grandiflora),  are  well-known  annual  repre- 
sentatives of  this  family.  There  are  very  few  species  of  the  other  four- 
teen genera  in  cultivation,  except  the  two  species  of  Claytonia  ( C.  Vir- 
ginica  and  C.  Carolina),  and  these  are  not  very  common  in  gardens, 
although  well  deserving  of  a  shady  nook,  even  in  grounds  of  limited 
extent.  All  readily  propagated  by  s^eds. 

Primulacece  (Primrose  Family).— An  order  of  about  twenty  genera 
and  150  species  of  low-growing  herbs  of  no  economic  value,  but  a  few  of 
the  genera,  such  as  Androsace,  Cyclamen,  DodecaiJieon  and  Primula,  are 
highly-prized  ornamental  plants.  The  Androsaces  are  all  Alpine  plants, 
and  thrive  only  in  open,  airy  situation,  among  rocks  and  stones,  and  in 
positions  where  they  will  not  suffer  for  moisture.  Of  the  Cyclamens, 
there  are  numerous  species,  but  the  varieties  in  general  cultivation  as 
greenhouse  plants  are  offsprings  of  C.  Pcrsicum.  These  have  thick  fleshy 
root-stocks  or  corms,  which  are  largely  imported  for  forcing  under  glass. 
They  are  usually  propagated  by  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  in  shallow 
boxes  or  seed-pans,  and  in  frames  or  in  an  ordinary  greenhouse.  Dode- 
catheon,  or  American  Cowslip,  ie  a  genus  of  only  one  species,  but  there 
are  a  large  number  of  natural  local  varieties,  widely  distributed  from 
our  Middle  States  to  California,  and  northward  to  Washington  Territory. 
They  thrive  best  in  moist  or  wet  soils,  and  half  shady  positions.  They 
are  handsome  plants  for  forcing  in  a  cool  greenhouse,  and  readily  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  or  by  dividing  the  crowns.  The  genus  Primula  contains 
many  species,  chiefly  native  of  the  cold  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but 
the  most  popular  varieties  for  greenhouse  culture  belong  to  a  Chinese 
species  (P.  Sinensis).  They  are  plants  requiring  simple  culture,  and  are 
propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings  of  the  roots,  and  by  dividing  the  old 
plants  as  soon  as  they  have  ceased  blooming. 

Ranunculacece  (Crowfoot  Family). — An  immense  order,  and  one 
largely  represented  in  cultivated  plants.  Mostly  herbaceous  or  some- 
what shrubby,  with  acrid,  caustic,  and  in  some  genera,  very  poison- 
ous juice.  The  Anemone  (Wind-Flower),  Actcea  (Banebcrry),  Aconitum 
(Monkshood),  Aquilegia  (Columbine),  Clematis  (Virgin's  Bower),  Del- 
phinium (Larkspur),  Hellcborus  (Christmas  Rose),  Hcpatica  (Liverleaf), 
Pceonia  (Poeony)  and  Ranunculus  (Buttercup),  are  some  of  the  best  known 
genera.  The  indigenous,  and  many  of  the  exotic  species  are  hardy 


HERBS,    TUBERS  AND   BULBS.  333 

garden  plants,  of  easy  culture,  and  readily  propagated  by  seeds  and 
division  of  the  roots.  The  double  garden  Ranunculuses,  descended  from 
It.  Asiaticits  and  R.  aconitifolius,  are  but  sparingly  cultivated  in  this 
country,  as  they  are  not  hardy,  and  if  planted  early  in  spring  the  foliage 
and  flowers  are  burned  by  the  sun  when  they  come  into  bloom. 

Resedacece  (Mignonette  Family). — A  small  order  of  herbs,  or  slightly 
shrubby  plants,  rarely  cultivated  except  species  of  Mignonette  (Iteseda). 
These,  in  the  It.  odorata,  a  native  of  North  Africa,  have  small,  incon- 
spicuous, but  sweet-scented  flowers.  There  are  many  varieties  in  culti- 
vation, and  propagated  by  seeds,  and  by  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots. 

Rutacece  (Rue  Family).— Mostly  trees  and  shrubs,  characterized  by 
their  strong  smell,  as  in  the  Orange  and  Lemon,  and  our  common  Prickly 
Ash.  There  are  a  few  genera  of  hardy  herbaceous  perennials,  such  as 
the  Dictamnus  Fraxinclla  and  Euta  graveolens,  or  garden  Rue.  Readily 
propagated  by  seeds,  or  by  dividing  the  roots  late  in  autumn  or  early 
spring. 

Sarraceniaceoe  (Pitcher-Plant  Family).— A  email  order  of  bog 
plants,  with  pitcher-shaped,  tubular  and  hooded  leaves,  with  rather 
large,  six-petal ed  flowers.  There  are  half  a  dozen  species  of  the  Sarra- 
cenias  native  of  the  Atlantic  States,  and  only  one  of  the  genus  Darling- 
tonia,  and  this  a  native  of  California.  Propagated  by  seed  sown  in  very 
light  soil  or  on  sphagnum,  and  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Saxifragacece  (Saxifrage  Family).— A  very  large  family,  of  about 
seventy-five  genera,  and  five  or  six  hundred  species.  They  are  mostly 
shrubs,  and  the  Currant,  Gooseberry,  Deutzia  and  Hydrangea  are  familiar 
representatives.  Among  the  perennial  herbaceous  genera,  the  Astilbe 
and  Saxifraga  are  the  most  common  and  best  known.  The  Aslilbe  Ja- 
ponica  (often  incorrectly  called  Spiraea  Japonica)  is  a  very  hardy  border 
plant,  extensively  cultivated  by  florists  for  forcing  in  winter,  its  small, 
pure  white  flowers  being  in  great  demand.  The  Beefsteak  Saxifrage 
(S.  sarmentosa)  is  an  old  and  well-known  trailing  greenhouse  plant,  some- 
times called  Strawberry  Geranium.  The  Siberian  Saxifrages  (8.  crassi- 
folid),  and  its  many  varieties,  are  occasionally  seen  in  gardens.  All 
readily  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Scltamtnete  (Banana  Family). — An  order  of  tropical  and  sub-trop- 
ical plants,  mostly  having  very  large  leaves  with  a  distinct  petiole  and 
blade.  The  most  familiar  representative  of  this  family  in  gardens  is  the 
common  Indian  Shot  plant,  or  Canna  Indica,  and  other  species  of  this 
genus.  Maranta  zebrina  is  a  well-known  and  common  greenhouse  plant. 
The  Queen  plant,  or  StreUtza  regince,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  a 
large,  rather  coarse,  stemless  greenhouse  plant,  also  common  ;  while  the 
Banana  (Musa),  of  which  there  are  several  species,  are  occasionally  cul- 
tivated in  conservatories,  but  it  is  a  large,  coarse-growing  plant,  requir- 
ing considerable  space  for  full  development.  They  are  propagated  by 
dividing  the  roots.  The  Cannas  are  most  extensively  cultivated,  as  they 
are  excellent  plants  for  bedding  out  in  summer.  The  thick  fleshy  roots 


334  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 

should  be  stored  in  a  warm,  dry  place  in  winter.  New  varieties  are 
raised  from  seed,  which  should  be  soaked  in  warm  or  tepid  water  for  a 
day  or  two  before  sowing. 

Scrophulariacece  (Figwort  Family).— A  very  large  and  widely  dis- 
tributed order  of  herbs,  shrubs,  and  occasionally  trees.  The  flowers  are 
usually  two-lipped,  and  with  an  irregular  monopetalous  corolla.  An- 
tirrhinum (Snapdragon),  Calceolaria  (Lady's  Slipper),  Chelone  (Turtle- 
head),  Digitalis  (Foxglove),  JUaurandia,  including  Lophospcrmwn,  JMimu- 
lus  (Monkey  Flower),  and  Pcntstemon,  t.re  well-known  representatives  of 
this  family.  Varieties  are  easily  raised  from  seeds,  and  are  then  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  of  the  succulent  shoots  planted  under  glass ;  or,  with 
the  hardy  genera,  by  dividing  the  roots  when  the  plants  are  at  rest. 

Solanacece  (Nightshade  Family). — A  very  large  order,  mostly  herbs, 
with  rank-scented  foliage,  often  containing  narcotic  or  poisonous  proper- 
ties, as  in  Nwotiana  (Tobacco),  Atropa  (Belladonna),  and  Datura  (Stram- 
onium). Several  genera  have  given  us  very  valuable  economic  plants, 
such  as  the  Tomato,  Egg  Plant,  Pepper  ( Capsicum),  Potato,  and  Tobacco. 
Among  those  genera  cultivated  principally  for  ornamental  purposes,  the 
Petunias,  Nierembergias  and  Ccstrums,  are  the  most  common  in  gardens 
and  greenhouses.  They  are  readily  propagated  by  green  cuttings  under 
glass,  and  the  tuberous  rooted  by  divisions.  The  best  and  most  simple 
method  of  perpetuating  varieties  of  the  Tomato  is  by  cuttings,  which 
strike  root  very  readily  in  frames  during  the  summer  or  in  the  green- 
house in  winter. 

Umbelliferce  (Parsley  Family).— A  large  family,  mostly  innoxious, 
biennial  or  perennial  herbs,  but  a  few  are  poisonous,  such  as  the 
Poison  Hemlock  ( Conium  maculatum),  the  Water  Hemlock  ( Cicuta  macu- 
lata),  and  the  Water  Parsnip  (Sium  lincare).  But  this  family  contains 
many  genera  of  great  economic  value,  such  as  the  common  garden 
Carrot,  Caraway,  Coriander,  Fennel,  and  Parsnip.  The  cultivation  and 
propagation  of  these  plants  are  too  well  known  to  be  considered  in  a 
work  of  this  kind. 

Urttcacece  (Nettle  Family).— A  large  order  of  several  sub-families, 
such  as  the  Elm  family,  Fig  family,  etc.  The  true  Nettles  are  annual 
or  perennial  herbs  with  a  fibrous  bark,  as  in  the  Bxhmeria  nivea,  or 
Ramie  plant,  of  China,  which  yields  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  textile 
fibers,  and  is  woven  into  grass  cloth.  It  is  not  hardy  in  our  Northern 
States,  but  is  now  being  extensively  cultivated  in  our  Southern.  It  is 
propagated  by  seed,  cuttings  of  the  young  shoots  and  of  the  subter- 
ranean stems.  The  Hop  plant  also  belongs  to  this  family,  and  is 
usually  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots,  or  by  removing  the  young 
sprouts  with  a  few  roots  attached. 

Valertnacece  (Valerian  Family).— A  small  order  of  herbs,  and  only 
a  few  genera  represented  among  cultivated  plants.  The  common  garden 
Valerian  ( Valerianaofflcinalis),  is  usually  cultivated  as  a  medicinal  plant; 
its  flowers  are  very  sweet  scented,  and  its  roots  have  a  very  strong  odor. 


HERBS,    TUBERS   AND  BULBS.  335 

An  indigenous  species  ( V.  edulis),  has  large  spindle-shaped  roots,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  used  as  food  by  the  Indians.  Centranthus  ruber,  or 
Spurred  valerian,  has  red  flowers,  and  sometimes  cultivated  in  European 
gardens  under  the  name  of  Jupiter's  Beard.  Readily  increased  by  seed 
or  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Verbenacece  (Vervain  Family).  —A  small  order  of  herbs  and  shrubs  ; 
the  latter  have  already  been  noticed  in  previous  chapters.  See  Calli- 
carpa,  Lantana,  and  Lippia,  Of  the  true  Verbenas  there  are  a  large 
number  of  species,  but  those  most  usually  cultivated  in  gardens  are 
descended  from  several  South  American  species,  but  now  so  mixed  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  trace  them  back  to  the  original  types.  New 
varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  and  then  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings 
of  the  young  shoots.  The  latter  mode  is  the  preferable  one,  and  for 
stock  plants  to  be  preserved  over  winter,  the  cuttings  should  be  struck 
in  August  or  September,  and  then  kept  in  a  rather  cool  house  until 
toward  spring,  when  they  are  forced  for  the  purpose  of  producing  more 
new  shoots  for  cuttings. 

Violacece  (Violet  Family). — This  family  is  scarcely  represented  in 
cultivation  by  any  other  genus  than  Viola,  the  true  Violets  and  Pansies. 
The  most  popular  species  is  V.  odorata,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties 
in  cultivation.  Some  are  quite  hardy,  others  tender  and  need  slight 
protection  and  are  usually  grown  in  cold  frames  where  the  temper- 
ature may  be  under  control  of  the  gardener.  There  arc  about  thirty 
North  American  species  of  Viola,  but  they  are  mostly  scentless,  or  only 
slightly  fragrant.  The  Pansy  or  Heart's-ease,  is  deconded  from  V.  tri- 
color of  Europe,  and  has  been  greatly  improved,  and  the  flowers 
increased  in  size  by  cultivation.  The  Violets  thrive  best  in  a  very  rich, 
light  soil,  and  with  a  moderate  temperature.  Plants  of  easy  culture 
and  all  readily  propagated  by  seed,  cuttings,  or  dividing  of  the  roots. 


IK"D  EX. 


Abelia ....249 

Abies 333,237,249 

Pectinata .237 

Abronia 249 

Abutilon 233,  249 

Experiments  with. .123 

Fertilization  of 1U5 

Species  of 123 

Abutilon,  Boule  de  Neige  and 

Santana 123,125 

Megapotamicum 233 

Santana 123 

Thomsonii  Pleno 111 

Acacia .250 

Acalypha ....250 

Acanthaceae 31 1 

Acanthus ...311 

Acer .233,250 

Campestre 234 

Dasycarpum ..233,  250 

Macrophyllum. 76 

Negundo.. .-250 

Pseudo-Platanus 233 

Kubrum .233,  250 

Achania  Malvaviscus 282 

Achillea 817 

Achimenes. .323 

Aconitum -.332 

Acorns. 73 

Actaea .332 

Actinidia .-250 

Adder's  Tongue  Fern. .320 

Adenocalymna 251 

Adenocarpus 251 

Adenostoma .251 

Adhatoda 251 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages 

of  Layers 175 

Aerial  Organs  of  Stems 60 

JEchmea .-314 

^Egiceras .251 

uEsculus .251 

Californica .234,  252 

Glabra  234 

Hippocastanum 234 

Parviflora 252 

Aganosoma -252 

Agapanthus .327 

Agapetes 252 


Agathophyllum .252 

Agathosoma .252 

Agave 811 

Ailanthus _ .252 

Akebia .252 

Alder .234 

Alhagi.. 252 

Almond 224,253 

Alnus .234,253 

Cordifolia 234 

Firma 252 

Glutinosa- .234,  252 

Oblougifolia .234 

Eubra 234 

Alocasia 312 

Aloysia  Citriodora .281 

Alternanthera 311 

Althea---. 276,  329 

Alyssum 318 

Amaranthacese .311 

Amaranth  Family .311 

Amaryllidaceae .31 L 

Amaryllis  Family 311 

Amelanchier  230,  252 

American  Aloe .311 

Azaleas ...235 

Burning  Bush 230 

Cowslip 232 

Holly.. 241,  277 

Linden...- 244 

Persimmon .231 

Sweet  Birch 235 

Sweet  Chestnut .236 

Weeping  Willow .243 

White  Fringe 237 

Yew ..300 

Amorpha .253 

Amorphophallus 312 

Amsonia 312 

Amygdalus 253 

Nana 253 

Ananassa .314 

Anchusa.. 313 

Andromeda 253 

Androsace.... 332 

Angers  Quince ...232 

Anemone 332 

Anise  Tree.... 278 

Anona 253 


(336) 


INDEX. 


33? 


Anona  Cherimolia 253 

Muricata. -  -  -253 

Squamosa 253 

Antennarias - ..317 

Anthemis  nobilis 217 

Anthurium - .-..312 

Antirrhinum 334 

Apocynacae 311 

Apocynum ..-312 

Apple -224 

Gall 27 

Seedlings ---  87 

Apricot -224 

Aquilegia 332 

Arabis. 318 

Aracese -312 

Ai-alia 253 

Chinensis 253 

Maiidchuricus 253 

Araucaria 254 

Arbor-Vitaa 234,  301 

Arbor-Vitses 238 

Arbutus ..234,254 

Unedo. 234 

•Arctostaphylos  — . 254 

Ardisia . 254 

Argemone 331 

Arineria- . 332 

Aristolochia 254 

Sipho ; 254 

Aroidce 312 

Artemsia 317 

Arrow  Wood 302 

Arthrotaxis 255 

Artichoke-.--. .316 

Artocarpus 254 

Incisa  -  - 254 

Arum  Family 312 

Ash .240,  274 

American 240 

European .240 

Seeds 75 

Ash-leaved  Maple 127 

Asimina -.254 

Triloba 227,  224 

Asparagus 327 

Aspen -.-289 

Aster 317 

Astilbe  Japonica 333 

Astragalus 326 

Atragene 255 

Aucuba -255 

Auraucaria 234 

Australian  Gum  Tree -.271 

Austrian  Pine 237  I 

Azalea ...234,  255 

Calendulacea 235 

Indica -...255  \ 

Mollis 235,255  | 


Azalea  Nudiflora -234 

Pontica . 235 

Sinensis . 235,  255 

Azara ..-255 

Baccharis 255 

Halimifolia 256 

Bald  Cypress.. 200 

Balsam  Fir ...249 

Bamboo.. 323 

Bambusa 323 

Banana 333 

Banana  Family... 333 

Baneberry 332 

Bankin g  up  Sprouts 273 

Banksia  ..256 

Barberry 256 

Bartoloma 329 

Bastard  Oak  Apple 26 

Bass 189 

Basswood 244,  301 

Bay  Tree... ..280 

Bear  Berry 254 

Beech 212,  240 

American 240 

European ..240 

Beefsteak  Saxifrage .  333 

Begoniaceae 313 

Begonia  Family 313 

Leaf  Cutting  of 167 

Bellflower  Family 315 

Bell-glass ....160 

Benthamia 256 

Japonica 256 

Bent  Layer  of  Vine 173 

Berberis 256 

Canadensis 256 

Vulgaris 256 

Betula ...235,  256 

Alba 235 

Lenta  235 

Papyracea --  235 

Bignonia   257 

Capreolata 275 

Radicans 257 

Bilbergia.. 314 

Bindweed  318 

Biotas 238,  301 

Birch 235,256 

Bird  Cherry. 226 

Birthworts 254 

Bitter-sweet  263 

Blackberry  296 

Black  Damas  Plum 231 

Bladder-nut. ..299 

Bladder  Pod ...279 

Bladder  Senna 266 

Bleeding  Heart 321 

Blueberry- 302 

BoehmeriaNivea...  ...334 


338 


PROPAGATION"  OF  PLANTS. 


Boraginaceae 313 

Borbonia . . . 257 

Bordguer's  Grafting  Tool 200 

Borage  Family... 313 

Boronia 257 

Botrychiums 320 

Bottle  Grafting. 219 

Bouyardia 257 

Bovista  Gigantea 15 

Box  Tree 258 

Bow-Wood 281 

Bread  Fruit 254 

Bridal  Wreath.... ....298 

Bromelia.-. 314 

Bromeliaceae 314 

Broom 239,  269 

Irish 239,269 

Scotch 239,  269 

Spanish ...239,269 

Broussonetia 258 

Brugmansia  Candida .270 

Bryonias 316 

Bryophyllum .318 

Bucco .252 

Buckeye ..234 

Buckthorn 292 

Bud.  Incision  Ready  for .161 

In  Position 191 

Variation 132 

Budding  with  Sloping  Cut 194 

Buds,  Different  Forms  of 29 

Buffalo  Berry 298 

Bulb  of  Lilium  Canadense 327 

of  Lilium  Speciosum 23 

of  Tigridia 326 

Burning  Bush .239 

Buttercup 332 

Butternut 241 

Button  wood 288 

Buxus- 258 

Cabbage 318 

Cactacese 314 

Cactus  Family ..314 

Caladium 312 

Calceolaria.. 334 

Calico  Bush -..279 

California  Buckeye 252 

California  N  utmeg 301 

Calla - -312 

Calla  Lily 312 

Callicarpa .-250,  335 

Callirrhoe  324 

Callistemon 258 

Callistephus... .317 

Callitris.- -.258 

Calluna .258 

Calophaca  Wolgarica .235 

Calothamnus. -259 

Calycanthus 185,  259 


Calystegia .318 

Camellia... 235,  259 

Theifera 259 

Campanulacece  .315 

Campanula 315 

Camperdown  Weeping  Elm  ...244 

Camphor  Tree. 280 

Candytuft .,318 

Cannalndica.. 333 

Cape  Jessamine 274 

Caper  Family 315 

Tree ..259 

Capparis .815 

Spinosa.. 234 

Capparidacese 315 

Carpinus  Betulus 236 

Caprifolium  ..281 

Capsicum ..334 

Caragana.... 235 

Arborescens 259 

Arborea 241 

Caraway.... 334 

Carbon 46 

Carex ...319 

Carnations   315* 

Carob  Tree 264 

Carrot 334 

Carpinus  Americana 236 

Carya  259 

Caryophyllaceae 315 

Cassandria . 262 

Cassia 262 

Castanea 236,  262 

Vesca,  var  Americana 236 

Catalpa 263 

Bignonioides 236 

Speciosa 236 

Cauliflower 318 

Ceanothus 263 

Cedar 236,263 

of  Lebanon 238 

Cedars  .. 238 

Cedrus 236,  238,  263 

Atlantica 238 

Deodara 238 

Libani 238 

Celastrus 263 

Celosia 311 

Celtis   263 

Centradenia 329 

Centranthus  Ruber 335 

Cerastium. 315 

Cerasus 236,  289 

Avium 225 

Capronianum 225 

Demissa .^...226 

Ilicifolia ....237 

Lauro-Cerasus 237 

Lusitanica  ..  ...237 


IKDEX. 


339 


Cerasus  Padus 226 

Pennsylvanicum -  226 

Pumila --226 

Serotina ...226 

Virginiana --226 

Ceratiola... .-264 

Ceratonia.--- -.264 

CercidiphyUum 264 

Cercis  ... ..-264,  314 

Cestrums 334 

Chamgecyparis 237,  264 

Lawsoniana .264 

Nootkaensis 264 

Thyoides.... 264 

Chamiso 251 

Chamomile.. 317 

Chaste  Tree ,. ...302 

Chelone .4 334 

Cherry ....224,  236,  263 

Cherimoyer 253 

Cheiranthus   ..318 

Chestnut ...236,  262 

Chilopsis.... 265 

China  Aster -. 217 

China  Tree 282 

Chinese  and  Japan  Cherries 226 

Aralia 253 

Azaleas 235,  255 

Fir 268 

Paeony 285 

Quince 232,269 

Snowball .302 

Yam    .319 

Chionanthus 265 

Retusus .237 

Virginica 2C7 

Choisya ...265 

Choke  Cherry.. 226 

Christ's  Thorn 285 

Chrysanthemum 317 

Chrysobalanus ..265 

Cinchona 286 

Cicuta  Maculata ...334 

Cinnamon .280 

Vine  319 

Cinquefoil .289 

Cionand  Stock. 205 

Cion  of  American  Holly 277 

Circulation  of  Sap. 85 

Cistacese 316 

Cistus.. .276,316 

Citron 226 

Citrus 265 

Decumana ..226 

Cladrastis  265 

Tinctoria 265 

Amurensis 265 

Clarkia 330 

Claytonia  Carolina 332 


Claytonia  Virginica 332 

Clematis .332 

Cleome 315 

Clerodendron 265 

Clethra .265 

Cleyera 266 

Clianthus 327 

Clitoria .327 

Cockscomb  Coral  Tree 271 

Coco  Plum .265 

Codiaeum .266 

Coleus  Blumei 326 

Tuberosus .326 

Colocasia 312 

Esculenta  312 

Columbine   332 

Colutea 266 

Comfrey .313 

Commelina .316 

Commelinaceae .316 

Common  Budding  Knife 188 

Common  Hum 70 

Composites 316 

Composite  Family 316 

Comptonia  .266 

Cone-Bearing  Trees 237 

Coniferse 237 

Conifers 237 

Conium  Maculatum .334 

Convolvulaceae  318 

Convolvulus  Family 318 

Coontie 319 

Coral  Tree ..271 

Corchorus .279 

Cordia .266 

i  Corema 266 

Coriander 334 

Cornel 266 

Cornel  Tree 226 

Cornus.. 266 

Florida 226.  239,  266 

Florida  Pendnla 266 

Mas.. 266 

Florida  Purpurea .267 

Corydalis '.... S22 

Corylus   267 

Avellana  239 

Cotoneaster. .239,  267 

Cottonwoods 289 

Crab  Cuctuses 314 

Cranberry 302 

Cranberry  Tree 302 

Crape  Myrtle .280 

Crassula 318 

Crassulaceae  ...318 

Crataegus 239,  267 

Coccinea   230 

Crataeva .315 

Cress..  ...318 


340 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Crinum .811 

Crocus. 324 

Cross  Fertilization 107 

Croton  266 

Crowfoot  Family... 332 

Cruciferese 318 

Cryptomeria ..268 

Cucubitaceae    319 

Cucumber  Tree 282 

Cunninghamia 268 

Cupressus .268 

Currant ..226,293 

Cuscuta... 318 

Custard  Apple 254 

Cut-leaved  Chaste  Tree... 302 

Cutting  Below  a  Bud 149 

of  Green  Wood 162 

of  Hollow  Stem 149 

Cuttings  of  Immature  Growths -154 

of  "Leaves 165 

of  Mature  Growths .. 144 

Cyanophyllum 329 

Cycadaceae  319 

Cycas  Family .319 

Revoluta.. 319 

Cyclamen 332 

Cydonia 232,268 

Chinensis 269 

Japonica  .268 

Vulgaris 268 

Cynips  'Inanis .-.  26 

Spongifica 25 

Cyperaceae 319 

Cyperus ...319 

Cypress 237,  264,  268 

Vine 318 

Cypresses 238 

Cypripediese ..330 

Cyrilla 269 

Cytisus 239,269 

Dacrydium.  269 

Dalea. .327 

Daphne- .269 

Cneoram .269 

Laureola 239 

Mezereum 269 

Darlingtonia ..333 

Darwinia .269 

Dasylirion - ....269 

Date  Plum. ...227 

Datura 270,  334 

Arborea 270 

Meteloides..... 270 

Deciduous  Cypress .300 

Decumaria   270 

Delphinium 332 

Dendrocalamus  .  - 323 

Dendromecon  Rigidum .331 

Desert  Willow 265 


Desfontanea 270 

Desmodium .327 

Penduliflorum 327 

Striata.... ..327 

Deodar  Cedar.. 238 

Deutzia... 333 

Gracilis .270 

Dianthus 315 

Dicentra. 321 

Canadensis .321 

Cucullaria .321 

Spectabilis... ...321 

Dicotyledonous  Plants 55 

Dictamnus  Fraxinella 333 

Diervilla ..270 

Sessiliflora ....270 

Trifida   290 

Diffenbachia.. .312 

Digitalis 334 

Dimorphanthus 253,  270 

Dioecious  Plants 68 

Dionaea 320 

Dioscoreaceoe 310 

Dioscorea  Batata 319 

Sativa 319 

Diospyras  Kaki 231 

Disti  ib  ution  of  Seeds 75 

Dodder 318 

Dodecatheon ..332 

Dogbane  Family 311 

Dog  Rose .243 

Dogwood  238,266 

Dolichos 327 

Double  Abutilon 111 

Bell-Glass 169 

Flowers  .110 

Pot  for  Cuttings- 168 

Worked  Trees .230 

Doucin  Apple 224 

Douglass  Spruce -290 

Downing  Mulberry ...283 

Drosera 320 

Droseraceae 319 

Drosophyllum 320 

Duplicated  Corolla Ill 

Dutchman's  Breeches. .321 

Pipe ..... 254 

Dwarf  Cherry 226 

Double  Flowering  Almond  .253 

East  India  Mango 282 

Echinocactus --314 

Egg-Plant 334 

Elseagnus --- --270 

Elder - 297 

Elecampane 317 

Elephant's  Ear... 313 

Elliottia 270 

Elm.... 244,302 

..  74 


INDEX. 


341 


Endosmosis :.  19 

Endogens  and  Exogens 53 

English  Bitter  Willow 243 

Elm 244 

Epacris. 270 

Epiphyllum .314 

Epidendreae  330 

Eri  botrya  Japonica 286 

Erica 270 

Erythrina 271 

Crista-galli  271 

Herbacea .-271 

Eschscholtzia -231 

Eucalyptus.. 271 

Globulus 271 

Euphorbia 272 

Euonymus -271 

Atropurpureus 239 

Europaeus 239 

Japonicus -  -271 

Latif  olius 240,  272 

Kadicans . .  271 

European  Holly .241 

Plum r 231 

Sticky  Alder 252 

Evening  Primrose  Family 330 

Everlastings 317 

Evergreen"  Beeches 240 

Exochorda 240,  272 

Exosmosis 17 

Experiments  with  Abutilous-..123 

with  Leaves 97 

with  Seeds 81 

Fabiana.. -.272 

Fagus 240,272 

"Ferruginea.- 240 

Sylvatica 240 

False  Acacia -.. 293 

Larch .238 

Faramea .272 

Odoratissima  272 

Fennel 334 

Fern  Family .320  j 

Seedling 321 

Fertilization  of  the  Kalmia.--.102 

of  Orchids 122 

Fever  Tree -.271 

Ficoideoe -.329 

Ficus 2?'3 

Carica 273 

Elastica ..273 

Indica 233 

Fig ....227 

Fig-Marigold  Family. .329 

Fig  Tree ..273 

Figwort  Family ...334 

Filbert .239,  267 

Field  Maple 233 

Filices..  ...320 


Firming  the  Soil 153 

Fitzroya 273 

Five  Finger 289 

Flowers,  Fruits  and  Seeds 66 

of  the  Grape .108 

of  Kalmia- 102 

Parts  of 67 

Flowering  Maples 249 

Flute  Budding 196 

Fontanesia  ...273 

Fortune! .273 

Phillyracoides 273 

Fontenay  Quince. ..232 

Food  of 'Plants...- 45 

Forsythia. 273 

Fortune! 273 

Suspensa ..273 

Fothergilla 273 

Amifolia ...273 

Foxglove * 334 

Fraxinus 1 240,  274 

Excelsior ..240 

Fremontia 274 

California  274 

French  Mastic 203 

Mulberry 268 

Tamarisk 300 

Fritillaria 327 

Fruit,  Forms  of. 70 

Fuchsia 230,  274 

Arborescens .274 

Fumariaceae 321 

Fumitory  Family 34 

Gaillardia   317 

Galanthus ..311 

Gall-Gnat 28 

Garden  Basket .318 

Gardenia  Florida .274 

Garland  Flower .269 

Garlic  Pear .315 

Garrya ...274 

Gaura ...330 

Gazania 317 

General  Principles  of  Propaga- 
tion  135 

Genista ..274 

Gesneria  Family 323 

Gesneriaceae 323 

Gentian  Family 322 

Gentianaceoe 322 

Genus  Hybrids .116 

Georgia  Bark.  _. 286 

Geraniaceae ..322 

Geranium  Family 822 

Germination  of  Seeds 83 

Ghent  Azaleas 255 

Ginkgo .297 

Gladiolus 324 

Bulb  S24 


342 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


Gladiolus  with  Roots  Changed 

to  Leaves.. 325 

Gleditschia ...240,  274 

Triacanthos   240 

Seed 142 

Glory  Pea. .327 

Gloxinia 323 

Glyptostrobus 238,  300 

GolddustTree 1 255 

Goat  Plant ....251 

Golden  Bell.. ...273 

Chain  ..279 

Corchorus .279 

Gomphrena 311 

Gooseberry 227,  293 

Gossypium  329 

Gourd  or  Cucumber  Family 319 

Grafting 205 

Bottle 220 

Modified  .220 

By  Approach .221 

Cleft 204,205 

With  two  Cions 206 

Crown 206.  207 

Saddle.... ..., 210 

Side-Crown  ...i.. ....208 

On  Roots . 210 

Side,  with  Vertical  Cleft. ..220 

The  Dahlia .317 

The  Grape 307 

Triangular  Crown 207 

Veneer ....214 

/     Dogwoods 216 

Maples 216 

Grafting  Wax 201 

Graminese. ..323 

Grape... 302 

Cutting 303 

Cuttings  of  Green  Wood--r305 

Layering  of 306 

Single-Bud  Cutting .304 

Vine  Tendril. 60 

Grass  Family 323 

Great-Flowered  Spiraea 240 

Great  Tree  of  California 297 

Groundsel  Tree 255 

Growth  of  Cells 14 

Gymnocladus 275 

Canadensis 142,  275 

Haemanthus  311 

Halesia 240,275 

Tretraptera 240 

Halimodendron .241,  275 

Hamamelis 275 

Japonica  275 

Hand  Glass 160 

Hand  Pruning  Shears 186 

Hawthorn 239,  267 

Hazelnut 239,  267 


1  Heartsease  335 

Heart-Shaped  Leaved  Alder  ...234 

Heath .  271 

Cuttings  of 164 

Heather,  Ling .258 

Hedgehog  Cactus 314 

Helianthemum 275,  316 

Helleborus  .332 

Heliotrope S13 

Heliotropium 313 

Hemlock  Spruces 238 

Herbs,  Tubers  and  Bulbs 309 

Hepatica 332 

Hesperis 318 

Hercules  Club 253 

Hibiscus 276,  329 

Rosa  Sinensis 276 

Syriacus 276 

Hickory 260 

Kale's  Paper-Shell 261 

With  Root  Sprouts 262 

Hippeastrum 311 

Holly .241,277 

Hollyhock  ..- 329 

Honey  Locust. ..240,  274 

Honeysuckle   281 

Hop-plant 334 

Hop-hornbeam 284 

Hop-tree 290 

Horehound ....326 

Hornbeam ...236,259 

Horse-chestnut 251 

Germinating 251 

Horseradish  ..318 

Horse  Sugar. .299 

House  Leek.. ...318 

Hovenia  Dulcis 276 

Huckleberry 302 

Hyacinthus 327 

Hybrid  Grapes 130 

Raspberries 116 

Hydrangea 233,  276 

Panicul  ata   Grandiflora 276 

Quercifolia 276 

Hydrogen  45 

Iberis ...318 

Ice  Plant. ...329 

Idesia  Polycarpa 276 

Ilex 241 

Aquifolium .241,  277 

Opaca 241,277 

Illicium  ...278 

Imperfect  Bunch  of  Grapes ..  -109 
Imperfectly  Fertilized   Ear   of 

Corn 106 

Inarching 221 

Indian  Bean ..236,263 

Corn  .323 

Currant 299 


INDEX. 


343 


Indian  Hawthorn 292 

Hemp. 312 

Shot  Plant ..333 

Indigofera. ...278 

Indigo  Shrub 253 

Influence  of  Cion  and  Stock.. .243 

of  Cion  on  the  Stock 247 

of    Pollen.... ..117 

of  Stock  on  Cion 245 

Inula -..- ...-317 

In    What    Materials   to   Plant 

Cuttings 160 

Ipomrea ..318 

Iresine -.. 311 

Iridaceae 324 

Iris  Family. .324 

Iron 49 

Iron-wood 284 

Ixia.. 324 

Japan  Alder. .252 

Arbor-Vitces. 264 

Cedar ..268 

Cherry 276 

Chestnut... 233 

Clover 3:37 

Gooseberry 250 

Holly... 284 

Hydrangea  276 

Maples... 234 

Quince .232,268 

Styrax 240 

Jasmhmm 278 

Jessamine 278 

Judas  Tree. 264 

Juglans 241,278 

California 278 

Cinerea  241,278 

Nigra... 278 

Regia .241,278 

Rupestris 278 

Juneberry 230,  252 

Juniper 278 

Junipers 238 

Juniperus 238,  278 

Virginiana 238 

Jupiter's  Beard 335 

Jussioaa 330 

Kalmia   Latif olia 279 

Kentucky  CoJTee  Tree 142,  275 

Kernel  of  Walnut 79 

Kerria  Japonica 279 

Kilmamock  Willow .243 

Kolreuteria  Paniculata 279 

Labiatae   ...326 

Laburnum  Vulgare 235,  279 

Ladies'  Eardrops 274 

Slipper 330,  3:34 

Lagerstroemia ...280 

Lantana 280,  335 


'  Larch 280 

j  Larches ....238 

Large-flowered  Spirasa 272 

Larix ....280 

Europoea. 238 

Larkspur 332 

Lath  Screens  for  Frames 159 

Laurel 263,  279,  280 

Laurus 280 

Nobilis... 280 

Sassafras 297 

Lavender ...326 

Lawson  Cypress 2o4 

Layered  Branch  of  a  Tree 171 

Layer  in  a  Pot 174 

Layers  of  Vines ...172 

Lead  Plant .253 

Leadwort  Family. 332 

Leaf  of  Acada. 65 

of  Buckeye. 64 

of  Begonia ,. 166 

of  Beech 63 

of  Cut-leaved  Birch 63 

of  Fern-leaved  Aralia 65 

of  Jersey  Pine 62 

of   Lilac 63.165 

of  Locust.. 65 

Leather  Leaf 262 

Leaves  Absorbing  Moisture 97 

of  Larch 63 

of  White  Pine 58 

Lefort's  Liquid  Grafting  Wax.203 

Leguminoseae 326 

Lemon 226,265 

Lentil  Shrub 235 

Lespedeza 327 

Leyder's  Grafting  Implement. .200 

Liatris-. 317 

Libocedrus 301 

Licmoophra  Splendida 13 

Lilac 299 

Ligustrum  Vulgare 280 

Liliaceae 327 

Lilium 327 

Canadense .327 

Candidum,  Flower  of 103 

Speciosum 327 

Lily  Bulbs  on  the  Flower  Stem  24 

Family 327 

Tree 268 

Lime 49,  226 

Limits  of  Cross-Fertilization.. .112 

of  Vitality  in  Seeds 77 

Limonia ...280 

Trifoliata    ...226 

Linden 244,  301 

Lippia 281,  335 

Liquidamber ..281 

Liriodendrou  Tulipif  era 281 


344 


PROPAGATIOX   OF   PLANTS. 


Liverl  eaf  332 

Locust,  or  False  Acacia 243 

Borer ..293 

Tree 293 

Lonicera 281 

Lophospermum 334 

Loranthaceae 328 

Lungwort   313 

Lychnis 315 

Lycium  Vulgare 281 

Lyouia _ 281 

Madura .281 

Madagascar  Nutmeg 252 

Magnolia 251,  282 

Acuminata 241 

Tripetela 241 

Umbrella 241 

Mahaleb  Cherry 225 

Mahonia 282  j 

Maidenhair  Tree 297  j 

Mallow  Family 329 

Malvaceae .329  ,' 

Malvaviscus. .282 

Arboreus ..282 

Mammilaria  ..314 

Mandchurian  Aralia 314  ! 

Manetti  Rose _V243  | 

Mangifera 282 

Mango .282 

Manna  Tree .252 

Maples,  European ...233 

Japan,  Sugar,  Etc 250 

Red ..233 

Silver. 233 

Soft 233 

Sycamore 233 

Maranta  Zebrina 333 

Matholia   318 

Matrimony   Vine .281 

Maurandia 334 

Mazzard  Cherry 225 

Meadow  Sweet 298 

Medlar ...227,  283 

Melastoma ..282,  329 

Melastomaceae 329 

Melia  Azedarach 282 

Melocactus. - 314 

Melon  Cactus 314 

Mertensia 313 

Mesembryanthemese  .329 

Mespilus   283 

Metamorphosed  Flower  Stalks.  61 

Mezereum 269,  283 

Microphoenix  Saluiti ..116 

Mignonette 333 

Milkwort 272 

Mimosa 327 

Mimulus ..334 

Mint   ..  ...326 


Mint  Family 326 

Missouri  Currant 227 

Mistletoe,  American 328 

European   328 

Family 328 

Mock  Orange 285 

Monkey  Flower 334 

Monkshood 332 

Monocotyledouous  Plants 53 

Monoecious  Plants 68 

Morning  Glory 318 

Morus 283 

Alba.. 227 

Mouse-Ear ---J 316 

Mountain  Ash 230,  288 

Movement  and  Reorganization 

of  Cells 20 

Mulberry... 227,  283 

Mu&a  -.-- 333 

Mustard 318 

Family 318 

Myrabolon  Plum 231,  290 

Myrtus  Communis. 283 

Myrtle .283 

Narcissus 31 1 

Nature  of  Seeds 73 

Nectarine 227 

Negundo 283 

Aceroides 127 

Maple. 250 

Nelumbium  Luteum 330 

Speciosum ...330 

Neottieae 330 

Nerium .283,312 

Nettle  Family 334 

Nevuisia 185 

New  Jersey  Tea ...263 

New  Zealand  Flax .327 

Nicotina .334 

Nierembergias 334 

Nightshade  Family 334 

Nitrogen  47 

Nootka  Sound  Cypress 264 

Norfolk  Island  Pine , .  .254 

Norway  Spruce .238 

Nymphaaa  Odorata .330 

Nymphaeacese 329 

Nyssa  283 

Oak 242,  290 

Black 242 

Chestnut  242 

English ...242 

European .242 

Red  ....242 

White .242 

Willow 242 

Oak  Gall. 25 

Oak-leaved  Hydrangea 276 

Oats..  ...323 


INDEX. 


345 


(Enothera -339 

Olea 283 

Europsea 283 

Oleander 283,  312 

Oleaster 270 

Olive   227,  283 

Onagrarieoe 330 

One-celled  Alga 13 

Onion.. 327 

Ophioglossums  .320 

Ophrydeje 330 

Opium  Poppy 331 

Opuntia 314 

Orange 226,  265 

Orchidacese ..330 

Orchid-Pot 331 

Orchis  Family 230 

Origin  and  Kinds  of  Buds 28 

Orpine  Family  _. 318 

Osage  Orange 28  L 

Osier 297 

Osmanthus  aquif olium 284 

Fragrans . __2£4 

Ilicifolius 284 

Ostrya-.-- 284 

Virginica ...284 

Vulgaris 284 

Oxalis 322 

Acetosella 32 

Oxide  of  Magnesium 51 

Oxydendrum 284 

Oxygen 45 

Pachysandra _  _185 

Pseony 284,  332 

Paeonia  Brownii 284 

Paliurus 285 

Pancratium ..311 

Pansy. ..335 

Papaveraceae.. .321,331 

Papaw 227,  254 

Paper  Birch.. 835 

Paper  Mulberry. 258 

Papyrus ..319 

Paradise  Stocks 224 

Pardanthus 324 

Parsley  Family ....334 

Parsnip 334 

Passiflora 285 

Edulis 285 

Quadrangularis .285 

Passion  Flower. .285 

Patchouly 326 

Paulo wnia  Imperialis 285 

Peach 228 

Stocks .'. 228 

Pecan  Nut .260 

Pearly  Everlasting 317 

Pelanquier's  Grafter .200 

Pelargonium 322 


Pemphigus  Vitif olia 27 

Pentstemon 334 

Pepper .334 

Pepperidge ...265 

Pereskia ..314 

Periwinkle    312 

Persimmon 230 

Petit's  Cleft  Grafter .200 

Petunia   334 

Phaseolus   .327 

Phillodendron  Amurense .285 

Japonicum 285 

Phillyrea   286 

Philadelphus ..285 

Coronarius 286 

Phoradendron  flavescens 328 

Phormium  tenax 327 

Photinia 286 

Phyllocactus ..314 

Phylloxera  Vastatrix 27 

Piceas .238 

Pinckneya  Pubens 286 

Pine  Apple 314 

Family 314 

Pines 237 

Pine  Tree 286 

Pink  Family 315 

Pinus 286 

Austriaca 237 

Cembra ...238 

Coulteri. 237 

Excelsa 238 

Densiflora  237 

Flexilis 238 

Mandchurica  238 

Monophylla  57 

Mugho.. 237 

Ponderosa 237 

Pyrenaica  237 

Resinosa   238 

Sabiniana 57,  237 

Strobus... .58,  238 

Sylvestris  _ .237 

Nana .237 

Pirus  Americana 230,  288 

Angustif  olia 224 

Aucuparia .230,  288 

Chinensis 232 

Communis 286 

Japonica .232,  268 

Lusitanica 232 

Malus .224,  286 

Prunifolia ..224 

Sinensis .229 

Pitcher-Plant  Family .333 

Pitch  Tree 288 

Pittosporum  Tobira .288 

Planera-... 241,288 

Planer  Tree 241,298 


346 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Plane  Tree .288 

Platanus  Occidentalis. .288 

Orientalis 288 

Planting  the  Cutting 153 

Pleroma 329 

Plum    ....231,289 

Stocks 228 

Plumbago 332 

Plumbaginaceae .332 

Podocarpus  Japonica 288 

Poinsettia 272,  289 

Poison  Hemlock ..334 

Pointed-leaved  Willow 243 

Polygamous  Plants 68 

Pomeae. 71 

Pomegranate .232,  290 

Poplar 289 

Poppy  Family 331 

Populus  ...289 

Potash.... 51 

Potato 334 

Potentilla. 280 

Fruticosa 289 

Portulacacese  332 

Portulaca  Grandiflora. .332 

Oleracea ...332 

Portugal    Crakeberry 266 

Quince  232 

Pounder  for  Firming  the  Soil.  .153  ; 

Prairie  Mallow 329 

Preparing  Cuttings 16  2 

Preservation  of  Seeds 82 

Prickly  Ash ..308 

Pride  of  India .282 

Prim   280 

Primula  332 

Primulaceae ...332 

Primrose  Family 332 

Privet -280 

Propagating  Begonias 167 

House! 156 

Propagation  by  Budding 187 

Different  Modes  of 135 

by  Divisions 176 

by  Cuttings 144 

by  Grafting 199 

by  Layers -.170 

by  Root-cuttings 1 80 

by  Seeds.... 136 

by  Suckers  and  Divisions ..176 

Protoplasm 12 

Prunes   289 

Prunus -231 

Americana - -232 

Domestica -290 

Chicasa - 232 

Pseudolarix 238 

Pseudotsuga -290 

Ptelea  Augustif  olia 290 


Ptelea  Trif  oliata  -  - 290 

Pterocarya 290 

Pterostyrax 290 

Hispidum  241 

Pulse  Family ,326 

Punica  290 

Granatum  232 

Purple  Flowered  Raspberry. -.296 
Purposes  of  Cross  Fertilization^ 

Pusley,  or  Purslane 232 

Quaking  Aspen. 289 

Quamoclit 318 

Queen    Plant... 333 

Quercus ...242,  290 

Ilex  242 

Peduculata .242 

Robur .242 

Quince.. 232,268 

Stocks _ 229 

Ranianas   Rose. -.. 334 

Ramie    Plant ..334 

Ranunculaceae 332,  333 

Ranunculus  Aconitifolius 333 

Asiaticus  333 

Raphiolepis  Japonica 292 

Raspberries,  Species    and    Va- 
rieties.  296 

Red  Alder.. 234 

Redbud.... ..264 

Red   Cedar 278 

Maple 127 

or  Norway  Pine. .238 

Osier  Dogwood. .267 

Removing  the  Bud.. __193 

Resedaceae ..333 

Reseda  Odorata 3J3 

Retinosporas 133,  238,  293 

Rhamnus  Cathaticus.. 292 

Rhaphia  Ruffia 189 

Rhus  Cotinoides .293 

RimsCotmus... ..393 

Rhexia 329 

Rhododendron  242,  292 

Catawbiense .242 

Maximum 242 

Ponticum .242 

Ribes .293 

Aureum 227 

Rotundif  olium 227 

Rice 323 

Richardia 312 

Robinia---. ..243 

Hispida ...243 

Pseud-acacia 243,  293 

Rochea 318 

Rock  Cress .318 

Rose -275 

Family  316 

Boots  and  their  Functions 36 


INDEX. 


Rosa 243,  293 

Canina  .243 

Rugosa -.185 

Rubiginosa 243 

Rose-. .243,293 

Bay 242,  292 

Flowered  Raspbeny ..296 

Leaf  as  a  Cutting 33 

Mallow 329 

of    Jericho.. 16 

of  Sharon 276 

Varieties  of 294,  295 

Rosemary .326 

Roses,  Sports  Among 134 

Round-leaved  Gooseberry 227 

Rubus,  Species  and  Varieties.  .296 

Rue  Family.. ...333 

Ruta   Graveolens .333 

Rutaceae .333 

Rye   323 

Sabatier's  Implement  for  Graft- 
ing   200 

Saddle  Grafting .211 

Modified 211 

Sage .326 

Sago  Palm 319 

Salisburia-- 297 

Salix 243,  297 

Acuminata .243 

Caprea   .243 

Purpurea  Pendula... .243 

Salmon  Berry 296 

Sambucus  ..297 

Sarraceniaceae 333 

Sassafras ...280 

Officinale 297 

Saxif ragaceae .333 

Saxifrage  Family 333 

Scale  of  Lfly  Bulb ..._,._ 23 

Scarlet  Mallow. 282 

Sciadopitys ....297 

Scirpus 319 

Scitaminese 333 

Scrophulariaceae 334 

Scrub    Oak .242 

Sea  Pink. 332 

Lavender 332 

Sedum 318 

Sedge  Family 319 

Seeds  and  their  Appendages. ..  75 

of  the  Ash 75 

of  the  Elm 74 

of  Pinus  Rigida... 77 

Size  and  Vitality 79 

Seedling  Pine.. 68 

Select  List  of  Plants .249 

Selecting  Stocks .222 

Sempervivums ..318 

Senna ...262 


Sensitiveness  of  Roots 39 

Sequoia 297 

Gigantea  .298 

Setting  the  Cuttings .167 

Sex  and  Fertilization... ..100 

Shadbush 72,230,262 

Shaddock  226,265 

Shell-bark  Hickory.. ....260 

Shepherdia  Argentea 298 

Shrubby  Cinquefoil 289 

Siberian  Pea  Tree 235,  259 

Saxifrage -333 

Side  Grafting. 221 

Silica -  50 

Silene -315 

Silver  Bell  Tree... 275 

Leaf  .-.- 241 

Slum   Lineare 334 

Size  and  form  of  Cells. 14 

Skimmia 298 

Slippery  Elm 274 

Smoke  Tree 293 

Snapdragon 334 

Sneeze  worts. .317 

Snow  ball  Tree-. ...302 

Snowberry 299 

Snowdrop  311 

Tree .240,275 

Soda... 51 

I  Solanaceae -  -334 

i  Sophora    Japonica 243,  298 

Sorghum -323 

Sour  Gum  Tree -..283 

Sop 253 

i  Sorrel  Tree.... 284 

Spice  Bush 280 

Spiderwort  Family 316 

I  Spindle  Tree .239 

Spiraea  298 

Aruncus ..299 

Grandiflora 272 

Japonica  333 

Opulifolia 299 

Splice  Grafting  the  Apple 287 

Splice  and  Tongue  Grafting 212 

Spoonwood .279 

Sports  among  Roses 134 

Spurge  Laurel 239,  269 

Squill  327 

Squirrel  Corn - 321 

Staff  Tree.. 263 

i  Stapelia  Glauca 164 

Staphylea  Bumaldi .299 

Pinnata 299 

Trifoliata 299 

Statice 332 

Stems  and  their  Appendages...  51 

Stick  of  Buds .189 

[  Sticky  Alder 234 


348 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS. 


Stinking  Cedar 301 

St.  John's-Wort 276 

St.  Julien  Plum 231 

St.  Lucie  Cherry .225 

Stock  or  Gilliflower.. 318 

Stocks  for  Fruit  Trees 234 

Storax .        299 

Family 210,290 

Stramonium 334 

Strawberry  71 

Flower 71 

Geranium ...333 

Tree .234,254 

Strelitza  Reginae 333 

Stuartia 299 

Styracaceae 240,290 

.Styrax  Japonica... 240 

Officinale .299 

Sugar  Cane ..323 

Sumac 293 

Sundew  Family 319 

Sunflower  . ...316 

Sweet  and  Red  Bay 280 

Sweet  Basil 326 

Sweet  Briar 243 

Sweet  Chestnut 236 

Sweet  Fern 266 

Sweet  Gum  Tree ..281 

Sweet  Leaf... 299 

Sweet  Potato 318 

Sweet-Scented  Shrub 259 

Sycamore 288 

Symphytum  . -.313 

Symphoriearpus   -299 

Symplocos  Tinctoria 299 

Syringa.. 285,  299 

Tamarack .280 

Tamarindus   300 

Tamarind   300 

Tamarisk .300 

Tamarix  Gallica -300 

Tanya 312 

Taxodium .300 

Distichum 288 

Taxus  Canadensis .300 

Tea  Plant 259,  301 

Tear  Tree 269 

Tecoma  ..301 

Radicans 257 

Terminal  and  Axillary  Buds  ...  30 

The  Office  of  Roots 41 

Thea .301 

The  Callus 146 

Three-Thorned  Acacia 240 

Seed .142 

Thrift.. .332 

Thorn 267 

Thuja 301 

Occidentalis  ..  ...238 


Thujas.... 238 

Thyme 326 

Tigridia 824 

Tilia  301 

Americana 244 

Tillandsia 314 

Time  to  Cut  Cions 204 

Time  for  Making  Layers 174 

Tobacco ." 334 

Tongue  or  Whip  Grafting 212 

Torreya  California. .301 

Taxifolia  .301 

Trabuc's  Grafter 200 

Tradescantia  _ . . 316 

Virginica 316 

Zeb'rina 316 

Transudation  of  Fluids 16 

Tree  of  Heaven 152 

Trees,  Shrubs  and  Vines 249 

Tree  and  Shrub  Stocks 232 

Tropoeolum .322 

Trumpet  Creeper 259,  301 

Trumpet  Grape-G  all 27 

Tsuga  Canadensis 238 

Tsugas .238 

Tulipa.... ..327 

Tulip  Tree ..281 

Tupelo 283 

Thunbergia. 311 

Turnip ...318 

Turtlehead 334 

Ulmus 244,  301 

Campestris 244 

Montana ..244 

Umbelliferae :___334 

Umbrella  Magnolia 241 

Pine 297 

Urticaceaa .334 

Vaccinium  Macrocarpou 302 

Valeriana  Edulis .334 

Valerinaceae ...334 

Valerian  Family 334 

Vandeje ..330 

Vanillas 331 

Variegated  Rush 91 

Venus'  Fly-Trap ..320 

Veneer  Grafting 217 

Venetian  Sumac 293 

Verbenaceae .335 

Vervain  Family .335 

Viburnum  Opulus 802 

Plicatum. 302 

Vinca 312 

Vincent's  Grafter 200 

Violacecc.-- ..335 

Viola ..-335 

Odorata. 335 

Tricolor. .335 

Violet  Family 335 


INDEX. 


349 


Virgin's  Bower 332 

Virgilia 265 

Viscum  Album 328 

Vitality  of  Seeds 77 

Experiments  to  Determine.  81 

Vitex.  Agnus  Castus .302 

Vitis  Vinifera -302 

Wallflower ...318 

Wahoo -239 

Walnut -241 

Water  Hemlock. --334 

Water  Lily  Family 329 

Lily  330 

Parsnip 334 

Weigela , 270,  308 

Wheat ..323 

Whip  Grafting ....213 

White  Alder.- 265 

Birch ..235 

Leaf  and  Catkin 256 

Cedar 264,  301 

Fringe  Tree 237,  265 

Lil> -.103 

Mulberry .227 

Pine .238 

Thorn 239 


White  Thorn  as  a  Stock .230 

Wood   -..- -230 

Wild  Black  Cherry 226 

Red  Cherry..-. .226 

Olive.... .270 

Willow .297 

Wind-flower 332 

Winged  Storax 290 

Walnut 290 

Witch  Hazel 275 

Wistaria  Frutescens 308 

Sinensis  308 

Wood  Cells 14 

Sorrel 31,323 

Wormwood ..317 

Wych  Elm.. 244 

Yam  Family 319 

Yankee  Budding  Knife ..188 

Yeast  Cells.-. 13 

Yellow  Wood 265 

Yews  .--. 300 

Zamia  Integrif  olia 319 

Zanthoxylum  Piperitum 308 

Zauschnera. 330 

Zinnia 316 


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Emerson  and  Flint.    Manual  of  Agriculture  .........  .........     1.50 

Farm  Conveniences  ...........................................    1.50 

Farming  for  Boys  ......................  ..........................    125 

Farming  for  Profit  ...........................  .  ..............    3.75 

FitZ.    Sweet  Potato  Culture.    New  and  Enlarged  Edition.    Cloth  ......        .(50 

Flax  Culture.    Paper  .............................................  30 

French.     Farm  Drainage  ...................................   .......  1.50 

Fuller,  A.  S.    Practical  Forestry  ....................  .  .............  1.50 

Propagation  of  Phtnts  ......................  ____  1.50 

-  Grape  Cult  nrist  ....................................  1.50 

--                Illustrated  Strawberry  Cnltinist  .....................  25 

-  Small  Fruit  Culinrist.    New  Edition  ................     1.50 

Fulton.     Pcttc'i  Culture.     New  and  Revised  Edition  ..................     1.50 

Gregory.     On  Cabbages  ..............................................  30 

-  .     On  Carrots,  Mangold  Win  tzels,  etc  .........................  30 

.  --     On  Fertilizers  .............................................  40 

-  On  Or.ion  Raising  ................................   ......  30 

-  On  Squashes  .............................................  30 

Harris    Joseph.     Gardening  for  Young  and  Old  ..................     1.25 

__  Talks  on  Manures.     New  and  Revised  Edition.  ..  1.75 

Henderson,  Peter.     Gardening  for  Pleasure  .....................  1.50 

Gardening  for  Profit.    New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  2.00 

--  Garden  and  Farm  Topics  ...........................  1.50 

-  Hand  Book  of  Plants  ................................  3.00 

-  •  Practical  Floriculture.    New  and  Enlarged  Edition....    1.50 
Husmann,Prof.CeO.  American  Grape  growing  and  Wine  Making    1.50 
Johnson.     Winter  Greeneries  at  Home  ...............................     1.00 

Henderson  «fc  Crozier.    How  the  Farm  Pay?  ....................    2.50 

Hop  Culture.    New  and  Revised  Edition.     Paper  .................  30 


0.    JUDD  CO.'S  ALPHABETICAL  CATALOGUE.  2 

Illustrated  Dictionary  of  Gardening,   Vois.  I  &  n,  each  5.00 

Johnston.    Agricultural  Chemistry 1.75 

Johnson,  M.  W.     HowtoPl.-mt.    Paper 50 

Johnson,  Prof.  S.  W.     How  Crops  Feed  2.00 

How  Crops  Grow 2.00 

Jones,  B.  W.    The  Peanut  Plant.    Paper 50 

Lawn  Planting.    Paper 25 

Leland.    Farm  Homes,  In-Doors,  and  Out-Doors.    New  Edition 1.50 

Long,  EMas  A.    Ornamental  Gardening  for  Americans 2.00 

Morton.    Fanner's  Calendar 5.00 

Oemler.    Truck-Farming  at  the  South 1.50 

Onions.     How  to  Raise  them  Profitably 20 

Our  Farm  of  Four  Acres.    Paper ..     .30 

Pabor,  Wm.  E.    Colorado  as  an  Agricultural  State 1.50 

Parsons.     On  the  Rose 1.50 

Pedder.    Land  Measurer  for  Farmers.    Cloth 60 

Plant  Life  on  the  Farm i.oo 

Quinn.    Money  in  the  Garden ,...     1.50 

Pear  Culture  for  Profit.    New  and  Revised  Edition.   1.00 

Riley.    Potato  Pests.    Paper 50 

Robinson.    Facts  for  Farmers 5.00 

Roe.    Play  and  Profit,  in  my  Garden 150 

Roosevelt.    Five  Acres  Too  Much 1.50 

Sheehan,  Jas.    Your  Plants.     Paper 40 

SilOS  and  Ensilage-    New  and  Enlarged  Edition 50 

Starr.  *Farm  Echoes 1.00 

Stewart.    Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard 1.50 

Ten  Acres  Enough 1.00 

The  Soil  of  the  Farm 1.00 

Thomas.    Farm  Implements  and  Machinery 1.50 

Tim  Bunker  Papers;  or,  Yankee  Farming i.so 

Tobacco  Culture.   Paper 25 

Treat.    Injurious  Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden 2.00 

Ville.    School  of  Chemical  Manures 1.25 

High  Farming  without  Manures 25 

Artificial  Manures 6.00 

Waring.   Book  of  the  F.-irm 2.oo 

Draining  for  Profit  and  Health 1.50 

Waring.    Elements  of  Agriculture 1.00 

Farmers' Vacation 3.00 

Sanitary  Drainage  of  Houses  and  Towns 2.00 

Sanitary  Condition  in  City  and  Country  Dwellings 50 

Warington.    Chemistry  of  the  Farm 1.00 

Webb,  Jas.    Cape  Cod  Cranberries.    Paper 40 

White.     Cranberry  Culture 1.25 

White.     Gardening  for  the  South 2.00 

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